Al-Biruni biography. Islamic News Al Biruni once expressed
ASTROLOGERS OF THE REMOTE PAST
Knowledge is the most excellent of possessions. Everyone strives for it, but it doesn’t come on its own.
The greatest scientific genius of the early Middle Ages, Biruni, was fluent in Arabic, Persian, Greek, Syriac, and Sanskrit. Historians of science often call the entire first half of the 11th century the “Biruni era.” He can be considered one of the world's first encyclopedists, whose scientific feat could be repeated only by very few and much later. But Biruni also studied the science of the stars and was considered a great master of horary astrology. One of his most famous works is the unique treatise “The Book of Instructions on the Fundamentals of the Art of Astrology.”
History knows many geniuses endowed with outstanding abilities in all areas of human activity. Such people constitute the golden fund of humanity.
During the transition from the first to the second millennium, the East presented the world with a whole galaxy of thinkers, whose works are still included in the treasury of world culture. Among the names of Ibn Sina, Ibn Rushd and Omar Khayyam, al-Biruni rightfully stands out. His figure is unique. Historians of science often call the entire first half of the 11th century the “era of Biruni.” With good reason, he can be considered one of the world’s first encyclopedists, whose scientific feat could be repeated only by a very few, and much later. His creative heritage includes more than 150 works on astronomy, mathematics, geography, mineralogy, chemistry, ethnography, philosophy, history, biology, medicine and astrology.
Biruni (Abu-Raykhan Muhammad ibn Ahmad il Biruni) was born on September 4, 973 in the city of Kit, one of the cities of the ancient state of Khorezm (now the city of Biruni in the Republic of Uzbekistan). We know practically nothing about his childhood and adolescence. It is only known that he received an excellent mathematical and philosophical education. Biruni was fluent in Arabic, Persian, Greek, Syriac, and Sanskrit.
The main part of his life took place at the courts of the rulers of various states. Initially, he lived at the courts of the rulers of Kyat and Kurgan, and then in Khorezm at the court of Shah Mamun, where he created and headed one of the first scientific institutions in the world - the Mamun Academy, which became the largest science center in Central Asia. The high level of this Academy is evidenced by the fact that such world-famous scientists as Abu Ali ibn Sina, better known by the nickname Avicenna, and the founder of algebra, Muhammad ibn Musa al Khorezmi, worked in it.
In 1017, Khorezm was conquered by Sultan Mahmud Ghaznavid, and at his invitation, Biruni lived in Ghazni at his court. As a scientist, he took part in several of Mahmud's campaigns in India, and lived in this country for several years. In 1030, he completed a fundamental work, which was a consequence of his travels in India, “Explanation of the teachings belonging to the Indians, acceptable or rejected by reason,” better known as “India.” In it, he gave a detailed scientific description of the life, culture, history and philosophy of the Hindus.
Biruni is the brightest representative of the Virgo sign, along with the Sun and the Ascendant there are also Mercury and the Ascending Lunar Node.
In the entire zodiac, Virgo is the only sign where its ruler, Mercury, is both in the monastery and in its exaltation. That is, a person who has Mercury in this sign in his horoscope is, as a rule, distinguished by high intelligence, orderliness in acquiring information, excellent logic, as well as the ability to notice little things and classify them.
But here Mercury is highlighted especially, because. falls within one degree with the Ascending Lunar Node, i.e. all its qualities are enhanced many times over and are directly related to the evolutionary growth of man.
Moreover, the characteristic of this 25 degree of Virgo directly indicates greater mental activity, and most importantly, good luck and luck, because This is the royal degree.
In Biruni’s horoscope, the sign of Virgo is also the Ascendant sign, which concentrates the individual’s attention on the exact sciences. In fact, the beginnings of modern mathematics are inextricably linked with his name. It was he who brought from India the numbers that are now used by the entire civilization, which later received the name “Arab”. Possessing deep knowledge in this area, he predetermined its future development, in particular, he expanded the concepts of number, created the theory of cubic equations, and made a significant contribution to spherical trigonometry and the creation of trigonometric tables. Let us also recall that the founder of algebra, Muhammad ibn Musa al Khorezmi, was his direct Student!
The Supreme Virgo is an encyclopedist, which Biruni undoubtedly was. However, he is not only an encyclopedist-theorist, but also a practitioner and empiricist at the same time. In his writings, he emphasized the need for careful verification of knowledge by experience and observation, contrasting experimental knowledge with speculative knowledge. He developed astronomical methods for geodetic measurements and improved basic astronomical instruments. Al-Biruni personally carried out observations on a wall quadrant with a radius of 7.5 m built by an Nasawi in Ray, performing them with an accuracy of 2". This quadrant for accurate observations of the sun and planets for 400 years was the largest and most accurate in the world. He established also the angle of inclination of the ecliptic to the equator, calculated the radius of the Earth, described the change in the color of the Moon during lunar eclipses and the solar corona during solar eclipses. Many of the astronomical measurements he made remained unsurpassed in accuracy for several centuries. He developed an accurate method for determining the radius of the Earth, based on its spherical rather than flat shape.
Biruni’s interest in astronomy is not at all accidental. The ruler of the first house, Proserpine, is located on the cusp of the XI house in conjunction with Saturn, one of the significators of this house. Biruni made an outstanding contribution to the development of astronomy, and is rightfully considered one of the world's leading astronomers. More than a third of his extensive scientific heritage (62 works!) are related to this science. In 1036-1037, he completed work on his main work on astronomy, widely known among astronomers around the world - the Canon of Masuda. In it, he subjected a certain criticism to the Ptolemaic geocentric system dominant in science at that time, and for the first time in the Middle East and Central Asia he expressed the idea that the earth moves around the sun. The book contains trigonometric methods for measuring geographical longitudes, and also outlines the methods of trigonometric methods for measuring distances, which anticipated the discoveries of European scientists by 600 years.
Biruni was also an outstanding astrologer. 23 of his astronomical works are directly related to this science. His ability to foresee events was legendary even during his lifetime. According to one such legend, Sultan Mahmud of Ghaznavi once decided to test his astrological art. He invited him to the palace and asked him to predict which of the four doors of the reception room, located on the second floor, he would go out through. Biruni wrote an answer and, in front of the Sultan’s eyes, put it under the carpet. After this, the Sultan ordered the fifth door to be cut and went out through it. Immediately returning and taking out a piece of paper from under the carpet, Mahmud read: “It will not go out through any of these four doors. They’ll break through another door, and he’ll come out through it.” Caught in a trap, the Sultan ordered Biruni to be thrown out of the window. They did so, but an awning was pulled up at the level of the first floor, which saved his life. When Biruni was again brought to the Sultan, he exclaimed: “But you didn’t foresee this journey, did you?” “I foresaw,” Biruni answered and asked to bring his own horoscope as proof. The prediction for that day was: “I will be thrown out from a high place, however, I will reach the ground unharmed and rise healthy.” The angry Sultan ordered Biruni to be imprisoned in a fortress, in which he served six months and during his imprisonment he wrote the essay “The Science of the Stars.”
It was thanks to his fame as an astrologer, and not only a theorist, but also as a master of horary astrology, that in 1017, the Afghan Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni, under the threat of invasion, demanded that the Shah of Khorezm hand over Biruni. The great scientist was forced to move to Ghazni, where he spent 17 years under virtual house arrest.
His natal chart also indicates the possibility of arrest. On the cusp of the XII house there is the Cross of Fate in conjunction with Mars and Venus! Mars, a minor evil, also has a negative aphetic status.
It should be taken into account that we interpret Biruni’s horoscope in the Porfiry system; it was in this system that natal birth charts were interpreted at that time. This has its reasons, since the system of houses, where the sectors between the main corner points are divided equally, indicates a person’s inclusion in a certain rigid system of relationships. The society of the Middle Ages was like that, which sharply distinguishes it from the New European era, where man (to a certain extent, of course) is his own legislator. In a horoscope built according to this system, the cusp of the XII house falls into the destructive 10 degrees of Leo, which again indicates negative problems associated with this house.
In the XII house, secrets and isolation are found in the conjunction of the VIII (Mars) and IX houses
changes in the color of the Moon during lunar eclipses and the solar corona during solar eclipses. Many of the astronomical measurements he made remained unsurpassed in accuracy for several centuries. He developed an accurate method for determining the radius of the Earth, based on its spherical rather than flat shape.
Biruni’s interest in astronomy is not at all accidental. The ruler of the first house, Proserpine, is located on the cusp of the XI house in conjunction with Saturn, one of the significators of this house. Biruni made an outstanding contribution to the development of astronomy, and is rightfully considered one of the world's leading astronomers. More than a third of his extensive scientific heritage (62 works!) are related to this science. In 1036-1037, he completed work on his main work on astronomy, widely known among astronomers around the world - the Canon of Masuda. In it, he subjected a certain criticism to the Ptolemaic geocentric system dominant in science at that time, and for the first time in the Middle East and Central Asia he expressed the idea that the earth moves around the sun. The book contains trigonometric methods for measuring geographical longitudes, and also outlines the methods of trigonometric methods for measuring distances, which anticipated the discoveries of European scientists by 600 years.
Biruni was also an outstanding astrologer. 23 of his astronomical works are directly related to this science. His ability to foresee events was legendary even during his lifetime. According to one of these legends, Sultan Mahmud Ghaznevi once decided to test his astrological art. He invited him to the palace and asked him to predict which of the four doors of the reception room, located on the second floor, he would go out through. Biruni wrote an answer and, in front of the Sultan’s eyes, put it under the carpet. After this, the Sultan ordered the fifth door to be cut and went out through it. Immediately returning and taking out a piece of paper from under the carpet, Mahmud read: “It will not go out through any of these four doors. They'll break through another door, and wow
(Venus). This is a clear indication that a person will receive secret, esoteric information on long journeys, which Biruni lost in full measure. It was he who was practically the first to gain access to the sacred knowledge of the ancient Hindus.
The Sun - the ruler of the 12th house - is located in the 1st house of the personality, which means that he must manifest and open this entire information layer of hidden knowledge for humanity, and this coincides with his evolutionary task, because there is also the Ascending Lunar Node.
At that time, it was almost impossible to join Indian scientific knowledge - knowledge of Vedic mathematics, astrology, Sanskrit itself, the “divine language”, according to the teachings of the Vedas, “mlecchas”, not Hindus, “cattle in the form of a man”, had not previously been transmitted. Even seven centuries later in India, British scientists faced enormous difficulties in similar research.
Let us return once again to the astrological works of al-Biruni. One of his most famous works is the unique treatise “The Book of Instructions on the Basics of the Art of Astrology.” It is interesting that this work was practically the only astrological treatise published throughout Soviet history, and in an academic edition (See Biruni, Abu Raikhan. Selected works. Vol. VI. Tashkent: Fan, 1975).
In the introduction to this book, Biruni briefly outlined his path to astrology: “... I started with geometry, then moved on to arithmetic and numbers, then to the structure of the Universe, and then to the verdicts of the stars, for only he is worthy of the title of astrologer who has fully studied these four sciences."
This treatise by Biruni contains a brief but encyclopedically complete presentation of the very foundations of astrology, with the necessary sections in related disciplines necessary in the work of an astrologer. This work has not lost its relevance to this day, and can be recommended to anyone who wants to master the basics of classical astrology.
In conclusion, we note that the fate of this outstanding scientist was largely mysterious in nature. He lived at the end of the 10th, beginning of the 11th centuries. According to Avestan teaching, it was precisely at this time that humanity transitioned to the Virgo microcycle within the framework of the 12,000-year cycle taken into account by the Avestan system.
This is the sacred cycle of the Earth, associated with the dominion of a certain zodiac sign over the earth's pole (it should not be confused with the precession cycle). In turn, it is also divided by 12, and each millennium passes under a certain sign of the Zodiac. The last 1000 years are a coincidence of the major and minor eras of Virgo. It was associated with the era of fragmentation, because its ruler Proserpina, the planet of analysis, trifles, fragmentation and transmutation, at this time a technocratic and scientistic civilization arose and developed globally.
Biruni lived at the very beginning of this era, symbolically connected with the 1st degree of Virgo, where he had Pluto. It is significant that, being an outstanding astrologer, he at the same time acts as a critic of astrological science, and this cautious criticism was subsequently brought to the point of absurdity by modern scientists, to the point of complete denial of astrology.
But recently we have entered a New Age, and in this new time the art of astrology should receive its rebirth.
www.zoroastrian.ru/node/1196
The sage al-Biruni said:
“...bodily pleasures leave behind suffering for those who experience them and lead to illness. And this is in contrast to the pleasure that the soul experiences when it learns something, for such pleasure, having begun, increases all the time, without stopping at any limit.”
Al-Biruni’s achievements are enormous, let’s note the most important:
He made one of the first scientific globes, on which populated areas were marked so that their coordinates could be determined;
- designed several instruments for determining geographic latitude, which he described in “Geodesy”: the latitude of Bukhara, according to his data, is 39° 20", according to modern ones - 39° 48"; the latitude of Chardzhou is 39° 12" and 39° 08" respectively;
- determined the radius of the Earth using a trigonometric method, obtaining approximately 6403 km (according to modern data - 6371 km);
- determined the angle of inclination of the ecliptic to the equator, establishing its secular changes. The discrepancies between his data (1020) and modern ones are 45"";
- estimated the distance to the Moon as 664 Earth radii;
- compiled a catalog of 1029 stars, the positions of which he recalculated from earlier Arabic zijas;
- considered the Sun and stars to be fireballs, the Moon and planets to be dark bodies reflecting light; claimed that the stars are hundreds of times larger than the Earth and similar to the Sun;
- noticed the existence of double stars;
- created a spherical astrolabe, which made it possible to monitor the rising and setting of stars, their movement at different latitudes and solve a large number of problems.
Al-Biruni learned to determine inaccessible distances, and his method is still used today. Let's consider this method.
To determineTo determine the width of the ravine BC, al-Biruni proposes to construct two right triangles ABC and ACD with a common side AC. An observer at point A, using an astrolabe, measures the angle BAC and constructs the same one - CAM. The point on the segment AM is secured with a milestone. After this, continuing the direction of the straight line BC in cside of the milestone M, finds point D, which lies at the intersection of BC and
AM. Now DC measures, this distance is equal to the desired distance BC.
Al-Biruni managed to measure the radius of the Earth during a trip to India. Angle "reduced"and Ihorizon,” he determined with the help of an astrolabe, and the height of the mountain from which he made measurements, with the help of an altimeter he constructed. Let h = AD - the height of the mountain, AB and AM - tangents to the Earth's surface, OD - the radius of the Earth, CMB - the visible horizon.
From the figure it is clear that R = (R+h) cosa,
The merit of al-Biruni is the determination of the specific gravities (densities) of precious stones and metals. To measure the volume, he designed a casting vessel. ChangeThe measurements were highly accurate (compare the data of al-Biruni and modern ones in g/cm3):
Gold: 19.05 and 19.32;
- silver: 10.43 and 10.50;
- copper: 8.70 and 8.94;
- iron: 7.87 and 7.85;
- tin: 7.32 and 7.31.
Biruni found out that the specific gravities of cold and hot, fresh and salt water are different, and he measured them. In Europe, similar measurements were made during the Renaissance, after Galileo built hydrostatic balances.
When compared with modern data, Biruni's results turn out to be very accurate. The Russian consul in America N. Khanykov in 1857 found a manuscript by al-Khazini entitled “The Book of the Scales of Wisdom.” This book contains extracts from Biruni’s book “On the relationship between metals and precious stones in volume,” containing a description of Biruni’s device and the results he obtained. Al-Khazini continued the research begun by Biruni with the help of specially designed scales, which he called “the scales of wisdom.”
Monument to al-Biruni in Tehran by Olga Ampel
Al-Biruni Monument decorating the southwestern entrance of Laleh Park in Tehran (Iran)
According to information, the posthumous list of his works, compiled by his students, took up 60 finely written pages. Al-Biruni received a broad mathematical and philosophical education. His teacher in the ancient capital of the Khorezmshahs, Kyat, was the outstanding mathematician and astronomer Ibn Iraq. After the capture of Kyat by the emir of Gurganj in 995 and the transfer of the capital of Khorezm to Gurganj, al-Biruni left for Ray, where he worked for al-Khojandi. Then he worked in Gurgan at the court of Shams al-Ma'ali Qabus, to whom he dedicated the "Chronology" around the year 1000, then returned to Khorezm and worked in Gurganj at the court of the Khorezmshahs Ali and Mamun II. From 1017, after the conquest of Khorezm by Sultan Mahmud of Ghaznavi, he was forced to move to Ghazna, where he worked at the court of Sultan Mahmud and his successors Masud and Maudud. Al-Biruni took part in Mahmud's campaigns in India, where he lived for several years.
He was dying in full consciousness and, having said goodbye to all his friends, asked the latter: “What did you once explain to me about methods of calculating unjust profits?” “How can you think about this in such a state?” - he exclaimed in amazement. "Oh you! - Biruni said barely audible. “I think that leaving this world knowing the answer to this question is better than leaving it ignorant...”
Buried in the city of Ganja in southern Afghanistan
Abu Raikhan Biruni (September 4, 973, the city of Kyat, Khorezm, - December 9, 1048) - a great scientist from Khorezm, author of numerous major works on history, geography, philology, astronomy, mathematics, geodesy, mineralogy, pharmacology, geology, etc. Biruni mastered almost all the sciences of his time. According to information, the posthumous list of his works, compiled by his students, took up 60 finely written pages.
Biruni is called an encyclopedist scientist, thereby emphasizing the vastness of his knowledge and discoveries that this man made in various fields of science: mathematics and astronomy, chemistry and physics, geology and mineralogy, geography and cartography, history and ethnography, philosophy and linguistics. Al-Biruni's scientific heritage amounts to approximately 150 works. His research covers both practical measurements of city coordinates and the development of methods for solving abstract geometric problems.
In addition to his native Khorezmian language, al-Biruni spoke Arabic, Persian, Greek, Latin, Turkish, Syriac, as well as Hebrew, Sanskrit and Hindi. This knowledge contributed to his development of principles for translating natural science terminology from one language to another.
Geodesy and cartography and much more...
Being both a theoretician and a practitioner, Biruni insisted on testing existing knowledge through experience, testing, and experiment. In his work “Geodesy” he wrote that “the observer must be attentive, more carefully review the results of his work, and double-check himself.” What explains Biruni’s versatility in knowledge and research methods? Most likely, it all started from childhood, from the homeland. Biruni grew up among artisans, to which his parents probably belonged. Therefore, it was natural for the future scientist to turn to solving practical problems related to the needs of life.
The scientist grew up in Kyat, which at that time was experiencing its heyday. Trade routes to the north and south passed through Kyat, and for this reason people from different countries almost always visited it, bringing with them new knowledge about the world.
Curious by nature, Biruni absorbed new information. In his old age, in his “Pharmacognosy in Medicine,” he wrote: “By my nature, from a young age I was endowed with excessive greed for acquiring knowledge in accordance with (my) age and circumstances. As evidence of this, the following is sufficient: a Greek settled (at that time) in our land, and I brought (him) grains, seeds, fruits and plants, etc., asked what they were called in his language, and wrote them down.” Life itself became a university for Biruni.
Exploring the world from early youth, he was already a young man closely connected with the scientific circles of ancient Khorezm. Thus, his teacher was the famous astronomer and mathematician Abu Nasr Mansur. Together with his teacher at the age of 17, he participated in calculating the geographical latitude of the city of Kyata. The first scientific work was soon followed by others. By the age of 22, he was already the author of several works, one of which, “Cartography,” was devoted to the compilation of maps and methods for developing volumes on a plane.
At the age of 27, Biruni published the work “Chronology of Ancient Peoples,” where he collected and described all the calendar systems known in his time, used by various peoples of the world. Based on the study of the chronology of different peoples, the scientist proposed general principles for compiling calendars, including agricultural ones.
The relatively calm life that Biruni had led until now was disrupted by political events. The period of the late 10th - early 11th centuries for Khorezm was a time of wars and coups. The stronger state of the Ghaznavid dynasty, with its capital in Ghazni (modern Afghanistan), sought to seize the lands of Khorezm. The changes taking place significantly affected Biruni’s life.
In 1017, the ruler of Khorasan and Afghanistan, Mahmud, conquered Khorezm, and Biruni, along with other prisoners, was sent to Ghazni, where he lived for 13 years. Despite the difficult conditions, Biruni continued his scientific work. The scientist became a real decoration of the court of Mahmud of Ghazni, while remaining a prisoner. During the period of captivity, he wrote a number of works on geography, astronomy and geology and other sciences. Thus, Biruni established that light travels faster than sound.
Geology
In the field of hydrogeology, he was the first to propose a correct explanation for the formation of natural springs and artesian wells. Probably during these years he carried out measurements of the densities of metals and precious stones. He invented a special conical device for these measurements - a vessel filled with water. Pieces of metal, the density of which was determined, were lowered into a vessel from which water was poured through a curved tube in a volume equal to the volume of the metal being tested. From the point of view of modern science, Biruni's results turn out to be very accurate. By the way, this measurement method, known as “volumetric”, is still successfully used in field (expedition) research in soil science, engineering geology, soil science and other branches of geological and soil sciences. In 1038, al-Biruni wrote “Mineralogy, or the Book of Summaries for the Knowledge of Jewels,” which determined the specific gravity of many minerals and provided detailed information about more than fifty minerals, ores, metals, alloys, etc. He also compiled “Pharmacognosy” - book about medical drugs.
Unfortunately, they became known in Europe very late. In the mid-19th century, a manuscript by al-Khazini entitled “The Book of the Scales of Wisdom” was found. This book contains extracts from Biruni’s work “On the relationship between metals and precious stones in volume”, containing a description of Biruni’s device and the results he obtained. The study of the density of substances was associated with the study of the properties of water.
Biruni pointed out that its properties are influenced by the seasons and the state of the air, and that the density of water depends on the content of impurities in it and on temperature.
Ethnography
During his forced stay in Ghazni, Biruni had to participate in Mahmud’s campaign in India. The spirit of a scientist and openness to new knowledge more than once helped Biruni get used to new conditions. In India, a scientist studies local culture, customs, language, religion and science.
In his work “India,” completed in 1030, al-Biruni gave a detailed description of the life, culture and science of the Indians, and outlined their religious and philosophical systems. Al-Biruni used a comparative method in his work: “I present the theories of the Indians as they are, and in parallel with them I touch upon the theories of the Greeks in order to show their mutual closeness,” he wrote. At the same time, he referred to Homer, Plato, Aristotle, Galen and other Greek authors, compared Indian and Islamic thought, especially highlighting the teachings of the Sufis as the closest to the Indian theories of Samkhya and yoga. When comparing the customs of different peoples, he mentioned the peculiarities of the life of the Slavs, Tibetans, Khazars, Turks, etc.
Biruni, while in India, also studied Sanskrit, an ancient Indian language, which allowed him to read Indian books in the original and gain knowledge first-hand.
Astronomy
By the time “India” ended, Biruni’s position had changed. Mahmud's son Masud ascended the throne. He favorably treated Biruni and patronized him. The scientist dedicated to Masud a large work on astronomy and spherical trigonometry, known as the “Canon of Masud,” which describes the picture of the world. Here Biruni appears as a great astronomer who was ahead of his time. The plan of this work is close to the standard plan of Arabic zijas, but unlike them, detailed experimental and mathematical proofs of all the stated provisions are provided here; al-Biruni refutes a number of provisions of his predecessors, for example, the assumption of Thabit ibn Korra about the connection between the movement of the apogee of the Sun and the anticipation of the equinoxes, and on many issues he comes to new conclusions. he asserted the same fiery nature of the Sun and stars, in contrast to dark bodies - planets, the mobility of stars and their enormous size compared to the Earth, the idea of gravity. Al-Biruni created the first model of the Earth (globe), was able to prove with the help of mathematical calculations that the Earth is round and on another part of the earth there is a continent (America) and people live there (later Galileo Galilei used his works on astronomy as a basis and was able to completely prove the shape of the Earth is a ball).
Al-Biruni made observations on a wall quadrant with a radius of 7.5 m built by al-Nasawi in Ray, performing them with an accuracy of 2 degrees. He established the angle of inclination of the ecliptic to the equator, Biruni almost accurately determined the radius of the Earth (more than 6000 km), based on the idea of its spherical shape, described the change in the color of the Moon during lunar eclipses and the solar corona during solar eclipses. Biruni expressed reasonable doubts about the validity of Ptolemy's geocentric system of the world, arguing that it is not the Sun that revolves around the Earth, but the Earth, like other planets, revolves around the Sun, and made a number of comments about the movement of the Earth around its axis. He explained the phenomenon of morning and evening dawn as a consequence of the glow of dust particles in the rays of the Sun hidden behind the horizon. Biruni improved the basic astronomical instruments that were used at that time (astrolabe, quadrant, sextant).
Biruni's results and achievements in the field of astronomy remained unsurpassed for several centuries.
Mathematics
Al-Biruni paid much attention to mathematics, especially trigonometry: in addition to a significant part of the “Canon of Mas'ud”, he dedicated to it the works “On the determination of chords in a circle using a broken line inscribed in it” (here a number of theorems belonging to Archimedes are considered, not preserved in Greek manuscripts), “On the Indian Rashikas” (this book discusses the so-called triple rule), “Spherics”, “The Book of Pearls on the Plane of the Sphere”, etc. The treatise “Shadows”, several treatises on the astrolabe and other astronomical instruments, a number of essays on geodesy.
No matter what political and social changes took place around, no matter what position Biruni found himself in, he remained a researcher and scientist until the end of his days. He always maintained a fresh outlook on nature and was open to new knowledge. No matter what country he lived and worked in, everywhere he established a living connection with people, observed their morals and customs, without showing hostility or intolerance towards people of other religions.
Despite the fact that no more than one fifth of Biruni’s works have survived to this day, and from them we can get an idea of this great scientist. We see a man - the creator of original theories, a thoughtful observer, a brilliant experimenter and linguist.
Biruni was dying in full consciousness and, having said goodbye to all his friends, he asked the latter: “What did you once explain to me about methods of calculating unjust profits?” “How can you think about this in such a state?” - he exclaimed in amazement. “I think that leaving this world knowing the answer to this question is better than leaving it ignorant...” answered Biruni.
Biruni studied the world, nature, the eternal, without indulging in the vain and temporary, and time worked for him.
Post Views: 1,105
Posted inIndia (Biruni)
« India» (« Tahqiq ma li-l-hind", fully " A book containing an explanation of Indian teachings, acceptable or rejected by reason") - a book by the Khorezmian encyclopedist Al-Biruni, written in Arabic and completed in 1030. It is an encyclopedic work based on scientific data of that time. The book is devoted mainly to the geographical and historical study of India. It is considered a masterpiece of Muslim scientific thought in the fields of geography and ethnography.
Russian translation
- Abu Reyhan Biruni. India. / Per. A. B. Khalidov, Yu. N. Zavadovsky, comm. A. B. Khalidov, V. G. Erman. M., 1963. 2nd ed. M., Ladomir. 1995. 727 pp. 10,000 copies.
Literature
- Ataman, Kemal. Re-reading al-birūnī"s India: a case for intercultural understanding // Islam & Christian-Muslim Relations; Apr2005, Vol. 16 Issue 2.
Notes
Wikimedia Foundation. 2010.
- Indian
- India (disambiguation)
See what “India (Biruni)” is in other dictionaries:
BIRUNI- al Biruni Abu Rayhan Muhammad Ibn Ahmed (973, Kyata, 1048, Ghazna), middle century. scientist, encyclopedist and thinker. In 1004 18 he lived in Khorezm, from 1018 in Ghazn. Author ok. 150 works (about 1/5 of them have reached us) on astronomy, geodesy, mathematics,... ... Philosophical Encyclopedia
Biruni- Beruni (Abu Reyhan Muhammad ibn Ahmed al Biruni) (973 about 1050), Central Asian scientist and encyclopedist. Born in Khorezm. Wrote in Arabic. Works on the history of India, mathematics and astronomy (“Canon of Mas’ud”, 1030), geography and topography... encyclopedic Dictionary
Biruni
Biruni Al- Abu Rayhan Muhammad Al Biruni USSR postage stamp dedicated to Al Biruni, 1973, 6 kopecks (DFA 4254, Scott 4099) Date of birth: September 4, 973 (09730904) Place of birth: Kyat, capital ... Wikipedia
BIRUNI- B e p u i, Abu Reyhan Muhammad ibn Ahmed al Biruni, cf. Asian, learned encyclopedist and thinker. One of the founders of experimental natural science,... ...
BIRUNI- Abu Reyhan Muhammad ibn Ahmed al Biruni (973 1048, according to other data after 1050) Central Asian scientist and encyclopedist. Genus. in the suburbs of Khorezm. In 1018 (or 1017) he was taken by Mahmud of Ghazni to Ghazni and remained at his court until the end of his life. B. wrote... Soviet historical encyclopedia
BIRUNI, Beruni, Abu Reyhan Muhammad ibn Ahmed al-Biruni- , cf. Asian, learned encyclopedist. and thinker. One of the founders of experimental natural science, he advocated the distinction between the spheres of science and religion. Supporter... ... Russian Pedagogical Encyclopedia
Biruni- Abu Reyhan Muhammad ibn Ahmed al Biruni (973 c. 1050) cf. Asian. scientist encyclopedist. Genus. in the suburbs of Khorezm. In 1018 (or 1017) he was taken by Mahmud of Ghazni to Ghazni and remained at his court until the end of his life. B. wrote in Arabic. and Persian... ... Ancient world. encyclopedic Dictionary
Al-Biruni- Abu Reyhan Muhammad ibn Ahmed al Biruni USSR postage stamp dedicated to Al Biruni, 19 ... Wikipedia
Medicine- I Medicine Medicine is a system of scientific knowledge and practical activities, the goals of which are to strengthen and preserve health, prolong the life of people, prevent and treat human diseases. To accomplish these tasks, M. studies the structure and... ... Medical encyclopedia
Books
- India. Reprint of the text from the 1963 edition, Abu Reyhan Biruni. `India` Biruni (973 - 1048) is a wonderful monument of science from the countries of the Asian East, containing the most important information about the peoples of India, their customs, religion and philosophical systems, set out from... Buy for 1300 rubles
- Collection of information for knowledge of jewelry. Mineralogy, Abu-r-Rayhan Muhammad ibn Ahmed al-Biruni. Biruni's mineralogical work has been known to scientists for a relatively long time from a manuscript kept in the Escurial Library in Spain. However, due to the general unsatisfactory nature of the manuscript, it...
: 1-202. . Excerpt from page 7:
“Al-Biruni wrote one of the masterpieces of medieval science, Kitab al-Tafhim, apparently in both Arabic and Persian, demonstrating how conversant he was in both tongues. The Kitab al-Tafhim is without doubt the most important of the early works of science in Persian and serves as a rich source for Persian prose and lexicography as well as for the knowledge of the Quadrivium whose subjects it covers in a masterly fashion"
100 famous scientists Sklyarenko Valentina Markovna
BIRUNI (BERUNI, AL-BIRUNI) ABU REIKHAN MUHAMMED IBN AHMED AL-BIRUNI (973 - 1048)
BIRUNI (BERUNI, AL-BIRUNI) ABU REIKHAN MUHAMMED IBN AHMED AL-BIRUNI
(973 – 1048)
“True courage lies in contempt for death (expressed in speech or action), in the fight against lies. Only the one who shuns lies and adheres to the truth is worthy of trust and praise, even in the opinion of liars..."
Abu Reyhan Muhammad ibn Ahmed al-Biruni was born on September 4, 973 on the outskirts of the city of Kyat, which at that time was the capital of Khorezm (now Kyat is renamed in honor of the great scientist and is called Biruni, located in Uzbekistan). Almost no information about the scientist’s childhood has been preserved. It is known that from an early age Biruni studied with the famous mathematician and astronomer Abu Nasr Mansur ibn Ali ibn Iraq, who was also the cousin of the Shah of Khorezm Abu Abdallah. In one of his poems, Biruni wrote: “I don’t know the truth of my genealogy. After all, I don’t really know my grandfather, and how can I know my grandfather, since I don’t know my father!” At the same time, from other works of the scientist it becomes clear that he knew the date of his own birth. Such a contradiction naturally seems strange. Trying to draw some conclusions about the origin of Biruni, researchers resort to the standard method in such cases - studying the names of the scientist. But in this case, this method gives little. For example, controversy erupted over a nickname, which was often given according to a person's place of birth. “Biruni” translated means “outside, outside.” The 12th-century historian Samani translated this part of the name as “man from the suburbs.” Following him, many researchers began to assume that Biruni was born outside the city walls. From the fact that artisans usually settled outside the fortress wall, it is in turn concluded that Biruni was born into a family belonging to this social group. For obvious reasons, this point of view was especially widespread in the USSR. But then it is unclear how Biruni, in early childhood, was able to get into a family that belonged to the ruling dynasty in Khorezm. Therefore, there is another interpretation of the appearance of this nickname. The word “Biruni” was often used to describe non-indigenous residents of a particular region. It is possible that the scientist received this nickname after returning to Khorezm after long wanderings. The name Muhammad and the father's name Ahmed also give us little information, since such names were sometimes given to children whose father was unknown.
We can say with confidence that already at the age of seventeen Biruni was engaged in serious scientific activity - in 990 he calculated the latitude at which the city of Kyat is located. By 995, when the young scientist was 22 years old, he was already the author of a large number of scientific works. Of these, “Cartography” has survived to this day, in which the young scientist considered ways to project an image of the surface of the globe onto a plane.
In 995, the calm course of life of the young scientist was disrupted. The fact is that at the end of the 10th and beginning of the 11th centuries the situation in the Arab world was turbulent. In Khorezm and the adjacent territories, civil strife broke out every now and then. During the next one, ruler Abu Abdallah was overthrown by the emir of Gurganj, the second largest city of Khorezm. How Abu Nasr survived these events is unknown. His student, Biruni, was forced to flee. Where exactly is unclear. It is only known that some time after his flight he settled in Ray (present-day Tehran). Biruni wrote that in Ray he did not have a patron (which was very important for a scientist at that time) and he was forced to live in poverty.
Nevertheless, he continued to engage in scientific activities, in particular, regularly conducted and recorded astronomical observations. This gave modern researchers the opportunity to determine some dates of Biruni’s life. For example, a scientist describes the lunar eclipse that he observed on May 24 in Kyat. Consequently, Biruni visited Khorezm at that time. But then he again, of his own free will or forcedly, left his homeland. It is quite possible that the scientist came to Kyat only to observe the eclipse. The fact is that at the same time, by agreement with Biruni, another astronomer observed the eclipse in Baghdad. Based on the timing of the eclipse, scientists determined the difference in the longitude of these cities. This means that Biruni wandered again and lived for some time in Gurgan, on the southeastern coast of the Caspian Sea. It is not known exactly when he settled there, but around the year 1000 he wrote the book “Chronology”, which he dedicated to the ruler of Gurgana. In this work, the author refers to seven of his earlier works. On August 14, 1003, Biruni, still in Gurgan, observed an eclipse of the Moon, but on June 4, 1004, he was already in his homeland, as he described a similar phenomenon seen there.
This time in Khorezm the scientist was received with dignity. Gurganj, the new capital of Khorezm, was ruled first by Ali ibn Mamun, and then by his brother Abu Abbas Mamun. Both rulers were patrons of science and maintained at their court a large staff of the best scientists, among whom Biruni took an honorable position. In addition, here the young scientist was able to work with his former teacher Abu Nasr Mansur, for whom he had the warmest feelings.
The happy and fruitful collaboration with the former teacher in his homeland continued until 1017. This year, Mahmud Ghaznavi, the ruler of the Ghaznavid state that had reached its peak at that time, captured Khorezm. Most likely, Biruni and Abu Nasr were taken away by Mahmud. There is no reliable information about how the relationship between scientists and the new ruler developed. But in one of the texts written by Biruni, there is a mention of some serious difficulties that he encountered at the beginning of his work under the patronage of Mahmud. Where exactly the scientist continued his work immediately after leaving Khorezm can again be evidenced by the astronomical observations he made. For example, the recorded results of observations made on October 14, 1018 in Kabul. The fact that Biruni used instruments made independently from improvised materials most likely indicates that Mahmud Ghaznavi was not a very generous patron. By the fall of 1019, Biruni found himself in Ghazna (the modern city of Ghazni in Afghanistan), as evidenced by the records of his observations of celestial phenomena. Here, most likely as a prisoner, Biruni lived and worked for the rest of his life, except for the fact that he accompanied Mahmud on some of his military campaigns. Around 1022, the ruler included the northern parts of India in his sphere of influence, and by 1026 his army reached the coast of the Indian Ocean. Biruni is believed to have visited the northern regions of India and even lived there for several years. He calculated the latitudes of eleven major cities in the Punjab and Kashmir region. But the main result of the trip to India was the major work “Explanation of the teachings belonging to the Indians, acceptable or rejected by reason.”
In 1030, Mahmud died and power passed to his son Masud. It seems that the new ruler treated Biruni much better than his father. There is much evidence that the scientist was able to travel freely. Tellingly, Biruni named one of his most famous astronomical works, “Masuda’s Canon on Astronomy and Stars,” in honor of his new patron. The scientist died in 1048 at the age of 75. Until his death, he did not stop engaging in scientific activities and writing scientific works.
These are practically all the facts from the life of one of the greatest scientists of the Middle Ages. We have already noted that usually much more is known about the works of ancient scientists than about them themselves. Biruni is no exception. Due to constant wanderings and a semi-free life, he had neither a family nor children. The main value of his life was books. “All my books are my children, and most people are fascinated by their children and poems,” he wrote.
In total, Biruni owns about 150 scientific works. Like most of his predecessors and contemporaries, he was a universal scientist. His scientific interests included almost all contemporary sciences. It is not for nothing that Biruni is often called the “great encyclopedist.” He is the author of works on history, mathematics, astronomy, physics, geography, geology, medicine, and ethnography. An important role in the development of science was played by the data obtained by Biruni himself, and by the fact that he was able to systematize and present the knowledge accumulated before him by scientists of the Arab world, Greece, Rome, and India. In addition to Arabic, the scientist spoke Persian, Sanskrit, Greek, possibly Syriac and Hebrew. This gave him a unique opportunity to compare and compile the knowledge of different peoples. Here is what Biruni himself wrote about this: “I present the theories of the Indians as they are, and in parallel with them I touch upon the theories of the Greeks in order to show their mutual closeness.” When translating texts, he worked very carefully, which distinguished him favorably from many contemporary translators. If most translations of that time contributed to the accumulation of errors and inaccuracies in the texts, then Biruni, on the contrary, often corrected earlier mistakes.
Twenty-seven books from Biruni’s works have survived to this day. Let's briefly talk about the most significant of them.
Biruni wrote one of his first major works around the year 1000. This is the “Chronology” we have already mentioned (“Monuments left over from past generations”). In this book, the scientist refers to his earlier work, “The Astrolabe” (“The Book of the Exhaustion of Possible Methods for Designing Astrolabes”). Around 1021, Biruni compiled the fundamental work “Shadows” (“Book on the isolation of everything said on the issue of shadows”). In 1025, he wrote the treatise “Geodesy” (“The Book of Determining Boundaries to Clarify the Distances between Settlements”), and by 1030 he wrote the book “The Science of the Stars” (“The Clue of Instruction in the Rudiments of the Science of the Stars”).
The previously mentioned work “Explanation of Indian teachings acceptable or rejected by reason” deserves special attention. Without exaggeration, we can say that this book, written based on materials collected during the Indian military campaigns of Mahmud Ghaznavi, has become the most important source telling about the history of India, the development of its culture and science. In “Explanations...” Biruni compares the religion, culture and scientific achievements of the Hindus: “I will also add that the Greeks in the era of paganism, before the advent of Christianity, adhered to beliefs similar to those held by the Indians: the worldview of the Greek nobility was close to the worldview of the Indian nobility, and The idolatry of the common people in Greece is similar to the idolatry of the common people in India."
Among Biruni’s works, the treatise “Masuda’s Canon on Astronomy and Stars” is also of great importance. Firstly, this work is a kind of encyclopedia of astronomical knowledge. Secondly, the author places special emphasis on mathematical proofs of certain theories and on experimental data. Biruni considered the results of observations and calculations not as biased as many of his astronomer predecessors, who often neglected data that did not fit into one theory or another. In addition to astronomical theories and information, the Masuda Canon contains a large number of mathematical calculations that played an important role in the development of mathematics.
After 1041, Biruni wrote the works “Mineralogy” and “Pharmacognosy”. The last work included a description of more than 1000 medicines, information about which Biruni gleaned from the writings of 250 authors.
Of course, the famous Arab scientist not only studied and systematized the research results of other scientists, but also conducted his own research and put forward scientific theories. Biruni the researcher was very careful about the results obtained and encouraged his colleagues to do the same. Here are his words, which may well be the motto of modern scientists: “The observer must be attentive, more carefully review the results of his work, and double-check himself.”
Among the most significant theories put forward by Biruni, it should be noted that the Sun is a hot fiery body, and the planets and the Moon glow with reflected light. He argued that the speed of light rays cannot be felt, since there is nothing that moves faster than light rays; believed that the solar corona is similar in nature to smoke. Biruni adhered to the Ptolemaic system of the world, but at the same time believed that the theory of heliocentrism was also mathematically acceptable. He also explained the nature of dawn and dusk, suggesting that it is the result of the glow of dust particles.
Biruni's merits were also great in the development of new scientific methods in the design of measuring instruments. In The Canon of Masuda, Biruni describes his own method of calculating the radius of the Earth. For this purpose, the scientist climbed a mountain of known height and determined the angle formed by the ray of vision directed towards the horizon and its plane. Having the height of the mountain and this angle, Biruni quite accurately calculated the size of the globe. The scientist is the author of many methods of geodetic measurements. He improved the quadrant, sextant and astrolabe. For example, the fixed quadrant he built with a radius of 7.5 meters allowed measurements with an accuracy of two arc minutes and remained the most perfect in the world for four centuries. Many of the measurements he made, such as the angle of the ecliptic to the equator, also remained the most accurate data for hundreds of years. While working on the book “Mineralogy”, Biruni determined with exceptional accuracy the specific gravity of many minerals and even introduced a method for determining minerals by their density.
In his books, Biruni paid attention to astrology. But, as many quotes from his works show, he was very skeptical about this “science”. Apparently, he was forced to study astrology, as required by the interests of his patrons. “Once I saw a man who considered himself famous and learned in the art of divination by the stars,” wrote Biruni. “Since he wanted to obtain the results of what the stars predetermine, he sincerely believed, in his ignorance, in the combination of the luminaries and sought in their connection the results of the impact on man and society.”
It is obvious that in Biruni’s works, not only the theories and data he presented are of great value, but also the demonstration to his followers of the very approach to science, which consisted of accuracy, precision and repeated verification of theoretical calculations with data obtained experimentally. Biruni also talked about science in general and its place in the world.
Let us finish our story about the great encyclopedist with another quote from his works: “There are many areas of knowledge, and there are even more of them when the minds of people in an era of ascending development turn to them in a continuous sequence: a sign of the latter is people’s desire for science, their respect for it and their representatives. This is, first of all, the duty of those who govern people, since it is they who must free hearts from worries about everything necessary for earthly life and excite the spirit to seek the greatest possible praise and approval: after all, hearts are created to love this and hate the opposite. However, in our time, the situation is rather the opposite.” One can only regret that these words, spoken a thousand years ago, are still relevant now. I would like to believe that over time, scientists will have less and less reason to speak in the same way about those in power.
From the book Eternal Traces author Markov Sergey Nikolaevich“INDIA” AL-BIRUNI The great son of Khorezm, the famous scientist Abu-l-Rayhan al-Biruni (973–1048) lived a martyr’s life. His homeland was subject to frequent raids by foreign invaders. And when in 1017 Mahmud of Ghazni, the founder of a huge state, attacked Khorezm,
From the book Tamerlane. Shaker of the Universe by Harold LambCHAPTER TWENTY-TWO SULTAN AHMED OF BAGHDAD An alliance inevitably had to be formed against Timur. Too often the emir swooped in from the east, from his deserts, like a black storm, and left cities in ruins. It was possible to foresee its invasion, as well as the attack of a hurricane.
author Shishov Alexey VasilievichMuhammad Ghuri (Muhammad Gorsky) Sultan of the Afghan city of Ghazni, who carried out the Muslim conquest of Northern India and founded the Ghurid state. The real name of the Muslim ruler who conquered almost all of Northern India at the very end of the 12th century, Muhammad Ghuri,
From the book 100 great commanders of the Middle Ages author Shishov Alexey VasilievichAkhmat (Akhmed, Akhmet) The arrogant khan of the Great Horde, who tried to crush Rus' under the Horde again, but failed to cross the Ugra. The battle on the Ugra River with the troops of Khan Akhmat, which put an end to the Horde yoke. Miniature from the Facial Chronicle. XVI century. The father of Khan Akhmat was Khan
From the book The End of the Horde Yoke author Kargalov Vadim ViktorovichChapter 11. Was there a war with Ahmed Khan? In the historical works of the last century, the idea was persistently pursued that the “liberation” of Russia from the power of the Horde khans happened as if “by itself,” without much effort on the part of Ivan III and, in any case, without much effort.
From the book Kings of the Horde. Biographies of khans and rulers of the Golden Horde author Pochekaev Roman YulianovichEssay fourteenth Sheikh-Ahmed, or the last khan and his brothers (Khan.
author Vagman Ilya YakovlevichISLAMBULI KHALED AHMED SHOWQI AL (b. 1957 - d. 1982) Participant in the terrorist attack that killed Egyptian President Anwar Sadat; member of the Al-Jihad organization. Never before in the entire history of Egypt has a political assassination been carried out so thoughtfully,
From the book 50 Famous Terrorists author Vagman Ilya YakovlevichRAMZY AHMED YOUSEF (born in 1967 or 1968)International terrorist with extensive experience in sabotage and guerrilla warfare. The organizer of a number of terrorist attacks, the most famous of which was the bombing of the World Trade Center in New York in 1993. Terrorism is the main problem
From the book 50 Famous Terrorists author Vagman Ilya YakovlevichYASIN AHMED (born 1936 - died 2004) Organizer and spiritual leader of the Islamic resistance movement Hamas, one of the most prominent and influential Palestinian political figures. Not a prophet or the creator of a new religion - he founded and led one of the largest
From the book Predictions of Disasters author Khvorostukhina Svetlana Alexandrovna From the book Essays on the history of geographical discoveries. T. 2. Great geographical discoveries (end of the 15th - mid-17th century) author Magidovich Joseph PetrovichAhmed Ibn Majid and the path through the Arabian Sea The local sheikh greeted Gama friendly, since he himself was at enmity with Mombasa. He concluded an alliance with the Portuguese against a common enemy and gave them a reliable old man, pilot Ahmed Ibn Majid (see vol. 1), who was supposed to bring them to
From the book Towards the Rising Sun: How imperial myth-making led Russia to war with Japan author Schimmelpenninck van der Oje David1048 Kushakov. South Manchurian riots. pp. 95, 171.
From the book Khrushchev’s “thaw” and public sentiment in the USSR in 1953-1964. author Aksyutin Yuri Vasilievich1048 Certificate of holding meetings of party activists in military districts on October 22, 1957 // Georgy Zhukov: Transcript of the October (1957) plenum of the CPSU Central Committee and other documents. WITH.
From the book Adultery author Ivanova Natalya VladimirovnaAhmed Sukarno Ahmed Sukarno Ahmed Sukarno (1901–1970) - President of Indonesia - was imprisoned twice as a political prisoner between 1945 and 1967. He initiated the convening of the Bandung Conference in 1955, which discussed issues of racism and colonialism in
From the book History of Islam. Islamic civilization from birth to the present day author Hodgson Marshall Goodwin SimmsThe Rise of the Natural Sciences: Al-Biruni With the maturation of literature came freedom to use conventional forms for a wide variety of purposes. Accordingly, when in the field of scientific and philosophical research numerous old
From the book World History in sayings and quotes author Dushenko Konstantin Vasilievich
