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Chinese civilization. The emergence of the state in China The emergence of ancient China

Ancient China is the most ancient culture, which has practically not changed its way of life to this day. Wise Chinese rulers were able to lead a great empire through the millennia. Let's take a quick look at everything in order.

Ancient humans probably reached East Asia between 30,000 and 50,000 years ago. Currently, pieces of pottery, ceramics have been discovered in a Chinese hunter-gatherer cave, the estimated age of the cave is 18 thousand years, this is the oldest pottery ever found.

Historians believe that agriculture appeared in China around 7,000 BC. The first harvest was a grain called millet. Rice also began to be grown around this time, and perhaps rice appeared a little earlier than millet. As agriculture began to provide more food, the population began to increase, and it also allowed people to do other jobs other than constantly searching for food.

Most historians agree that Chinese civilization formed around 2000 BC around the Yellow River. China was home to one of the four early civilizations. China is different from other civilizations, the culture that developed has remained to this day, of course, changes have occurred over the millennia, but the essence of the culture has remained.

The other three civilizations disappeared or were completely absorbed and assimilated by new people. For this reason, people say that China is the oldest civilization in the world. In China, families who controlled land became leaders of family governments called dynasties.

Dynasties of China

The history of China from ancient times to the century before last was divided into different dynasties.

Xia Dynasty

The Xia Dynasty (2000 BC-1600 BC) was the first dynasty in Chinese history. Her period lasted about 500 years and included the reign of 17 emperors - the emperor is the same as the king. The Xia people were farmers and possessed bronze weapons and pottery.

Silk is one of the most important products China has ever created. Most historians agree that the Xia Dynasty produced silk clothing, with silk production possibly beginning much earlier.

Silk is produced by extracting the cocoons of silk insects. Each cocoon produces one silk thread.

Not all historians agree that the Xia was a true dynasty. Some believe that the history of Xia is just a mythical story because some points do not correspond to archaeological discoveries.

Shang Dynasty

The Shang Dynasty (1600 BC-1046 BC) was originally a clan living along the Yellow River during the Xia Dynasty. A clan is a group of very close families that are often viewed as one large family. The Shang conquered the Xia land and gained control of Chinese civilization. The Shang Dynasty lasted over 600 years and was led by 30 different emperors.

The Shang were the oldest Chinese civilization to leave behind written records, which were inscribed on tortoise shells, cattle bones, or other bones.

Bones were often used to determine what nature or nature wanted. If the emperor needed to know the future, such as “what kind of son the king will have” or “whether to start a war,” assistants carved questions on the bones, then heated them until they cracked. The lines of cracks told the wishes of the gods.

During the Shang Dynasty, people worshiped many gods, probably like the Greeks in ancient times. Also, ancestor worship was very important because they believed that their family members became godlike after death.

It is important to understand that other smaller Chinese families also existed in different parts of China at the same time as the Shang, but the Shang seem to have been the most advanced, as they left behind a lot of writing. The Shang were eventually defeated by the Zhou clan.

Zhou Dynasty

The Zhou Dynasty (1046 BC-256 BC) lasted longer than any other dynasty in Chinese history. Due to the split in the dynasty, over time, Zhou was divided into parts called Western Zhou and Eastern Zhou.

The Zhou fought the invading armies from the north (the Mongols), they built large mounds of mud and stone as barriers that slowed down the enemy - this was the prototype of the Great Wall. The crossbow was another invention of this time - it was extremely effective.

During the Zhou, China's Iron Age began. Iron-tipped weapons were much stronger, and the iron plow helped increase food production.

All agricultural land belonged to the nobles (rich). The nobles allowed peasants to work the land, similar to the feudal system that developed in Europe during the Middle Ages.

The emergence of Chinese philosophy

During the Zhou Dynasty, two major Chinese philosophies developed: Taoism and Confucianism. The great Chinese philosopher Confucius developed a way of life called Confucianism. Confucianism says that all people can be taught and improved if one finds the right approach.

Key messages: People should focus on helping others; family is the most important value; the elders of society are the most revered. Confucianism is still important today, but it did not become widespread in China until the Han Dynasty.

The founder of Taoism was Laozi. Taoism is everything that follows “Tao,” which means “the way.” Tao is the driving force of all things in the Universe. The Yin Yang symbol is commonly associated with Taoism. Taoists believe that you should live in harmony with nature, be humble, live simply without unnecessary things and have compassion for everything.

These philosophies are different from religions because they do not have gods, although the idea of ancestors and nature are often seen as gods. The emperor's power was also linked to religious beliefs. Zhou spoke of the Mandate of Heaven as the law that allowed Chinese emperors to rule—he said that the ruler was blessed by Heaven to rule over the people. If he has lost the blessing of heaven, he should be removed.

The things that proved that the ruling family had lost the Mandate of Heaven were natural disasters and rebellions.

By 475 B.C. The provinces of the Zhou kingdom were more powerful than the central Zhou government. The provinces rebelled and fought each other for 200 years. This period is called the Warring States period. Eventually, one family (the Qin) united all the others into one empire. It was during this period that the concept of Imperial China appeared.

Qin Dynasty

From 221 BC e. Before 206 BC e. The Qin dynasty gained control of civilized China. Qin's rule did not last long, but had an important impact on the future of China. The Qin expanded their territory and created the first empire of China. The brutal leader Qin Shi Huang declared himself the first true emperor of China. This dynasty created a standard currency (money), a standard for wheel axle sizes (to make roads all the same size), and uniform laws that applied throughout the empire.

Qin also standardized the various writing systems into one system used in China today. Qin Shi Huang enforced the philosophy of "Legalism", which focuses on people following laws and receiving instructions from the government.

Mongol invasions from the north were a constant problem in China. The Qin government ordered that the walls built earlier be combined. This is considered the beginning of the creation of the Great Wall of China. Each dynasty built a new wall or improved the wall of the previous dynasty. Most of the walls from the Qin period have now been destroyed or have been replaced. The wall that exists today was built by a later dynasty called the Ming.

An amazing tomb was made for the emperor, larger than a football field. It is still sealed, but legend has it that there are rivers of mercury inside it. Outside the tomb is a life-size clay army discovered in 1974.

The Terracotta Army has over 8,000 unique soldiers, over 600 horses, 130 chariots, as well as acrobats and musicians - all made from clay.

Although the Qin dynasty did not rule for long, its standardization of Chinese life left a profound influence on later dynasties in China. It is from this dynasty that we get the name "China". The first emperor of this dynasty died in 210 BC. e. He was replaced by a weak and small son. As a result, a rebellion began and a member of the Qin army took control of the Empire, which began a new dynasty.

Han Dynasty

The Han Dynasty began in 206 BC and lasted 400 years until 220 AD. and is considered one of the greatest periods in Chinese history. Like the Zhou Dynasty, the Han Dynasty is divided into Western Han and Eastern Han. Han culture defines Chinese culture today. In fact, most Chinese citizens today claim "Han" as their ethnic origin. The government made Confucianism the official system of the empire.

During this time, the empire grew greatly, conquering land in modern-day Korea, Mongolia, Vietnam, and even Central Asia. The empire grew so large that the emperor needed a larger government to rule it. Many things were invented during this time, including paper, steel, compass, and porcelain.

Porcelain is a very hard type of ceramic. Porcelain is made from special clay that is heated until it melts and becomes almost glass. Porcelain dishes, cups and bowls are often called "Chinese" because several hundred years ago all porcelain was produced in China.

The Han Dynasty was also known for its military might. The empire expanded westward to the edge of the Taklamakan Desert, allowing the government to police trade flows in Central Asia.

The caravan routes are often called the "Silk Road" because the route was used to export Chinese silk. The Han Dynasty also expanded and strengthened the Great Wall of China to protect the Silk Road. Another important product of the Silk Road was the religion of Buddhism, which reached China during this period.

Chinese dynasties would continue to rule China until the Middle Ages. China has retained its uniqueness because from time immemorial they have honored their culture.

Interesting facts about Ancient China

“Ni-nan,” the cry of a swift was heard between the rafters of the bridge...
But by whom or what was his peace and sleep disturbed?
— A Taoist dispute between two friends whose speech is so unclear,
Looking at Mount Zhishan over a glass of wine...
(Liu Lisun. Poet of the Song era. “Poems on the Screen”)

State name China translated into Russian as “middle state”. The word comes from the name of the Khitan tribe, which ruled in the northern part of the state at the time when contacts between the country and European states first began to be established. Marco Polo gave the country the name Catai when he traveled to Asia. This is how Northern China came to be called. Southern China, conquered by the Mongols by that time, was called “southern barbarians” (Manji) by Marco Polo. The word Catai entered the English language as Cathai.
Today the official name of the country is the People's Republic of China (PRC). The name was changed in 1949 with the rise of the Chinese Communist Party to power. The form of government in the country is a socialist republic.
The total population according to 2007 data is 1.317 billion people. This is the largest population of a single country in the world. The bulk of the population is made up of ethnic Chinese (self-identified as Han) - about 92% of the population. In total, 56 nationalities live in China.
Territory of China 9,596,960 sq. km (in terms of territory, China is second only to Russia, the USA and Canada). The length of the land strip, excluding islands, is 18,000 km. China includes about 5,000 islands. The largest islands of China are Taiwan and Hanan.
The capital of the state is Beijing.
The official currency is the yuan.
The official language is Chinese, English is also spoken in Hong Kong, and Portuguese is spoken in Macau.

Religion of China

The main religions of China are Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism.
Confucianism arose in the 6th-5th centuries. BC. in China. The original name of the teaching is zhu. The founder of the doctrine is Confucius. Confucianism supports the cult of the earth and the cult of ancestors, and also accepts Heaven as the highest principle. The pinnacle of human development in Confucianism is the achievement of Tao. Tao represents the highest substance and replaces the concept of “God”. The main idea of Confucianism is the spiritual and social self-improvement of man. Education, constant spiritual development, respect for traditions and rules established in society are considered important. Morality and ethics in Confucianism are primary, and religion is secondary. Confucianism is rational and strives not only to show a person the path to achieve the Tao, but also pays attention to politics, ethics, social life, and the desire for an ideal structure of society. Confucianism does not teach about the origin of man, but teaches what a person should be from a moral point of view.

Taoism is the doctrine of Tao (the path), a Chinese religion that contains elements of traditional philosophy and science, as well as shamanism, mysticism and fortune telling. The emergence of Taoism presumably dates back to the 4th-3rd centuries. BC. The main sources of Taoism are the mystical cults of the kingdom of Chu, as well as the magical practices of the kingdom of Qi. The founders of Taoism are Emperor Huangdi and the sage Lao Tzu. Taoism contains a complex hierarchy of deities and demons, the pantheon is headed by the God of Heaven Shang Di, the founder of the religion Lao Tzu is also included in the pantheon. Taoism has never been considered an official religion. Just like in Confucianism, the main idea in Taoism is the achievement of Tao. Of great importance is the concept of wu wei, which is an understanding of when action is necessary and when inaction is necessary.
Buddhism is the doctrine of spiritual awakening, originating from the ideas of Buddha Shakyamuni. The emergence of Buddhism dates back to the 6th century. BC. The basis of Buddhism is beneficial truths: suffering, the causes of suffering, the state of liberation, the path to liberation. Buddhism is divided into Mahayana (Great Vehicle) and Theravada (teaching of the elders). In China, mainly in Tibet, Mahayana is practiced. The Great Vehicle is divided into the Great Vehicle (Mahayana) and the Lesser Vehicle (Hinayana). The teachings of the Lesser Vehicle are limited to the pursuit of individual enlightenment, while the Great Vehicle preaches universal enlightenment. Man in Buddhism is one of the particles of the universe, one of the executors of the universal world law. At the heart of the entire universe lies an ethical mechanism, which is set in motion by good and evil deeds. A person's life is just one moment in a long chain of rebirths. The world in Buddhism is illusory, just as all its pleasures are illusory. Everything is governed by the law of cause and effect - karma. The condition for each subsequent rebirth is the cumulative result of all previous ones. Death in Buddhism is not a final process, but a transition to another state. Personality is not a unity, but only a collection of dharmas (energy particles). The human soul also disintegrates into separate elements. Personality consists of five main elements: physicality, sensation, desires, ideas, cognition. Reincarnation of the same person is possible only if all the energy particles that compose it come together again. The soul is an individual consciousness that carries within itself the entire spiritual world, transforms with each new rebirth and strives for rebirth.

History of China from ancient times to the twentieth century

It was a very long way to the Jiangnan Tower - I walked it alone!
Only a bad month and the cold of dawn entered the Hua Qing Palace.
Only the whistling west wind decided to climb the Dynasty Tower;
Under the vault of the Changyang Chamber, the dull sounds of rain are heard...
(Wang Jian, poet of the Tang Dynasty. “Ode to the Hua-Qing Palace”)

Ancient China

In the 1st millennium BC. On the territory of modern China there were seven powerful kingdoms - Chu, Qin, Wei, Zhao, Han, Qi and Yan. Period from 481 to 221 BC. in the history of ancient China is called the period of warring states. During this period, the preconditions were created for the formation of an empire, which, at its greatest territorial expansion, extended from the Gobi Desert to the South China Sea, if we consider the extent from north to south, and also from the Liaodong Peninsula to the Pamir Mountains from east to west. The empire took shape towards the end of the 3rd century BC. and existed in this form until the end of the 2nd century. AD, after which it disintegrated.
The Warring States period was a time of successful development of productive forces because iron processing techniques were mastered. Until the 6th century. BC. Ancient China was still in the Bronze Age. The tools used in crafts and agriculture were primitive.
Iron tools, which began to be used in agriculture, contributed to its widespread development. Chinese agriculture used the plow, sickle, scythe, shovel, hoe and other tools.
The Chinese practiced deep plowing and used organic fertilizers. However, plow farming spread slowly and unevenly. It received relatively wide use at this time only in the north of China.
Serious irrigation work began on loess soils in the Yellow River basin. Large canals, dams and dams were created. This was primarily due to military and transport purposes, but the canals were also used for soil irrigation. A huge number of ditches were diverted from each canal, carrying water to the fields. Canals specially designed for irrigation also began to be built.
Agriculture was the main occupation in the economic life of the ancient Chinese kingdoms. In Northern China, wheat, sorghum and millet were mainly grown, and in Southern China, rice was mainly grown. Gardening (especially the cultivation of mulberry trees), as well as vegetable gardening, developed.
Cultivation of the land was a communal activity, not just slave labor. Agricultural production relied on the efforts of free farmers. Agriculture was considered an occupation worthy of honor and respect.
With the mining of iron and the skills to process it, crafts began to develop. Iron was used to make tools and weapons. The kingdoms of Chu and Han became famous for their swords, Zhao for their spades, and the Qin for their pikes and forts. By the 3rd century. BC. Iron tools and weapons became widespread and began to replace bronze and copper ones.
At the same time, the production of copper and bronze products, such as mirrors, vessels, ornamental details of chariots, and weapons, was developing. Weaving (especially silk weaving), ceramics, woodworking and lacquer crafts are developing, and painting on silk is flourishing.
Writing technology is being actively improved, construction is developing, which leads to the construction of magnificent palaces of kings and nobility, cities and defensive structures. On the northern borders of the kingdoms of Qin, Zhao and Yan, walls were built to defend against raids by nomadic tribes, which later became parts of the Great Wall of China.

Shipbuilding is developing successfully, especially in the coastal kingdoms. The Chinese invent the compass, which was first used for overland travel, and then began to be used by sailors.
V-III centuries BC. were marked by an increase in trade turnover within the kingdoms, as well as strengthening trade ties between the kingdoms. Commercial ties were established with neighboring tribes. The share of slave labor increased. There were several categories of slaves, designated by the terms nu, bei, tun, shi, fu, jie, pu, li. Slaves were divided into private and public, and the share of private slavery at this time increased significantly. Prisoners of war remained the main source of slaves. State slavery increased due to those convicted of crimes. Also, poor people, tramps and homeless people began to be enslaved. With the ruin of the community members, debt slavery developed, which later became the main source of private slavery. The slave trade in non-Chinese slaves developed. Slave labor was used in heavy work, construction, crafts and crafts, as well as in agriculture.
The emergence of Confucianism, Taoism and Fajia dates back to this time.
There was a progress in natural sciences and ideological sciences. Astronomy, known in the territory of the Chinese kingdoms since ancient times, developed. Elementary knowledge of anatomy and medicine appeared. Natural philosophy and literary creativity developed.

Early Middle Ages

The beginning of the medieval era in China was associated with the invasion of barbarians. Various nomadic tribes living to the north and west of China penetrated far into the interior of the country. Northern China was subjected to especially numerous invasions. Part of the North Chinese nobility was forced to leave their lands and emigrate to South China, where the influx of barbarians was less strong. The result of the barbarian invasions was, first of all, the political fragmentation of China into many small states, partly headed by barbarian leaders with their squads, partly (in the south) by representatives of the southern Chinese nobility of the semi-tribal, semi-slave-owning type. Period from 420 to 589 in the history of China became a period of many northern and southern dynasties.
The barbarians failed to destroy the state organization of slaveholding China. But their invasion still had some social consequences. Chinese slavery was not completely destroyed, but it was dealt a significant blow. The settled barbarians increased the number of the so-called free peasantry. Ordinary peasant warriors began to become dependent on those military leaders who managed to seize the largest number of lands, gradually turning them into serfs. It was during this period that Chinese estates, called zhuang-yuan, began to spread, which were no longer of a slave-owning, but of a feudal-serf character. Among the Chinese themselves, strong houses stood out, i.e. the richest and most powerful families, who rose above ordinary members of the clan and also became larger landowners, exploiting their impoverished relatives as dependent peasants. However, remnants of tribal relations persisted in China for a very long time. Back in the 10th and 11th centuries, serfs officially called themselves children and relatives of their master landowners.
The first attempt at political unification of China in the early Middle Ages was that of the Sui Dynasty. The founder of the Yangjin dynasty, or Yandi, was the head of the barbarian squads who served in one of the northern dynasties. In 589, Yangjin subjugated Northern and Southern China and conquered Annam. Under him, the irrigation system was restored and partly expanded. In particular, the Grand Canal was dug, connecting the Yellow River with the Yangtze River. About a million peasants gathered from different parts of China were involved in the construction of this canal. But the reign of the Sui dynasty turned out to be short-lived, and the unification of China itself under this dynasty was still fragile. Local power was in the hands of the local nobility. The intensifying raids of the Turkic tribes in the west required more forces from the empire, which it did not have enough.

In 618, one of the Western princes named Gaozu, half-Turkic by origin, seized power in the empire, marking the beginning of a new Tang dynasty.
The Tang Empire ruled China for about 300 years, from 618 to 907. The capital of the dynasty was the city of Chang'an (today Xi'an). The most brilliant representative of this dynasty was Gaozu's successor, Taizong (626-649). As a result of a series of wars, Taizong significantly expanded the borders of the empire. The territory of China, including dependent lands, vassals of the emperor, extended in the north to the Amur and Khingan, in the south to India and Siam, in the east to Korea (which Taizong also tried to capture), in the west almost to Iran. The vast empire under Taizong acquired the features of a complex bureaucratic monarchy, governed by numerous imperial officials at the center and locally.
Under Taizong, special knowledge was introduced for officials. All officials were divided into nine ranks. The central administration finally took shape in the form of six departmental chambers or ministries (ministries of officials, taxes, military, criminal courts, public works, religious ceremonies). Local governors were appointed. The emperor managed to turn the local nobility into officials, who received a number of social and official privileges thanks to their subordination to the center.

Under Taizong, a verification of land ownership rights was carried out, and the background of state lands on which state peasants sat, subject to many taxes and duties, was significantly increased. For their allotment, peasants were required to pay a tax in grain, a tax in handicrafts, and, in addition, perform heavy state corvee from 20 to 50 days a year. The bureaucratic nobility took possession of a significant part of the land; the possessions of some of the largest officials were tens of times greater than the possessions of one peasant family.
The Tang Empire continued to maintain its position as the largest state in Asia under Taizong's successors. Among them, the patroness of Buddhism, Empress Wuhou (689-705), especially stood out. In the VII-VIII centuries. China conducted intensive foreign trade with the Arab Caliphate, India, Siam and Annam. But in the 8th century, a deep crisis of the Tang Empire was already revealed. The peasants, crushed by taxes, levies, and all kinds of government duties, became poor and were forced to lead the most miserable lifestyle. Frequent epidemics due to famine claimed hundreds of thousands of peasant lives. The peasant plots themselves decreased in number, as they were systematically seized by powerful houses - larger farmers, officials, moneylenders. The decrease in the number of state peasants had an adverse effect on the income of the imperial treasury. At the same time, the process of feudalization strengthened the local nobility and gave rise to centrifugal aspirations among the imperial governors and generals themselves. The turning point in the history of the Tang dynasty was the uprising of the commander-in-chief An Lu-shan. In 785 he marched against the emperor with 120 thousand troops. In 786, An Lu-shan managed to capture the imperial capital of Chang'an. The emperor fled and only the next year suppressed the uprising with the help of hired barbarians. Following An Lu-shan's speech, uprisings of governors took place in Southern China, which also required great efforts from the emperor to suppress them.
The plight of the peasants led in the second half of the 9th century to the largest peasant uprising of 874-883. The uprising was led by a soldier of the imperial guard, a former small salt merchant Huang Chao. The Chinese peasant uprising of 874-883, which took place almost simultaneously with the Zinj uprising in the Baghdad Caliphate, is striking in its duration, mass scale, and energy. It was also not devoid of some organization, which allowed it to achieve major successes for a certain time. The uprising began in the northern provinces of Shandong and Hebei. Then it penetrated into Central China in Henan Province. Already in 874-875, Huang Chao had about 100 thousand armed peasants. In 879, Huang Chao made a campaign against Southern China, where he took the richest port of Canton. The rebels seized all the goods of numerous foreign merchants. In the hot climate of the south, a severe epidemic began among Huang Chao's soldiers. Huang Chao retreated north to the Yangtze River. Despite the consequences of the epidemic, his army continued to increase and by 880 numbered 250-300 thousand people. In 881, Huang Chao took Chang'an and proclaimed himself emperor under the name Da Qi. The peasant emperor expressed his social program through the mouth of his chief minister, who declared that Da Qi wanted nothing more than to benefit the common people. Huang Chao stayed in Chanan for two and a half years. In 883, the emperor of the Tang dynasty returned to the capital with the help of barbarian hordes - Uighurs, Tanguts and other northwestern nomads. The steppe barbarians mercilessly exterminated Chinese peasants. These bloody predators are popularly called “black crows.” Huang Chao himself, forced to flee from Changan, died the following year in Henan province, killed by one of his associates.
The Peasant War of 874-883 resulted in the death of many feudal lords and major officials. As a result, the number of state peasants increased again. The end of the Tang Dynasty was predetermined by a powerful peasant movement. The emperors of this dynasty ruled for some time after the suppression of the uprising. But their power no longer extended to all of China. In the north, at the beginning of the 10th century, a large barbarian state of a union of Khitan tribes was created, which captured Manchuria, part of Mongolia and part of Northern China. The capital of the new state was the city of Yangjing, later known as Beijing or Beiping.
In 907, the reign of the Tang dynasty ended. China has entered a period of complete fragmentation. In 960, China was unified under the rule of the Sun Dynasty. Its founder was Zhao-Kuan-Yin, one of the northern Chinese military leaders who won several victories over the Khitan. The capital of the new dynasty was initially the city of Changan. Later the center was moved south to Hangzhou.
The Song Empire was weaker than the Tang Empire. The unification of China under the Song Dynasty itself was not complete. Both in the north and in the south, some of the provinces did not recognize the authority of the Song emperors. The Turkic, Mongolian and other western nomadic tribes also did not submit to the empire, posing an ever-growing threat to its borders. The Song emperors waged wars with the Khitans, Korea, and Annam. But the results of these wars were not sufficiently certain to bring these countries under China's control. However, during the Song Dynasty, China's international ties strengthened again. Large foreign trade developed not only with Central Asia, India and Indochina, but also with Korea, Japan and Indonesia.
The class relations of the Song Empire in the 11th century led to deep antagonism, reminiscent of the times of the last Tang emperors. The number of state peasants, which increased slightly after the uprising of 874-883, decreased again. In the 11th century, the state received taxes from only half of the lands, since the other half of the lands were seized by privileged officials - feudal lords. The peasants were forced to pay huge sums in interest for their debts to moneylenders year after year. The role of the latter was often played by the officials themselves, who forced the peasants to take loans from them under the most severe usurious conditions. The situation of the peasants was becoming dire. Hunger strikes, epidemics, and the extinction of entire villages and regions became a kind of chronic phenomenon. The peasant movement again threatened to turn into a large peasant war on an all-Chinese scale. The desire of the imperial government to prevent a new peasant war and restore the shaken state finances was reflected in the rather radical reforms of one minister of the Song Dynasty, Wang An-shih.

At first, Wang Anshi (1021-1086) was one of the provincial officials. In the provinces, he could become closely acquainted with the most glaring facts of the poverty of the population, the arbitrariness of officials and the domination of moneylenders. Having risen to the post of imperial minister, Wang An-shih in the period 1068-1073. held several events of a financial, economic and social nature. First of all, he conducted a new land census and taxed the lands of the serving nobility, who by this time had almost stopped paying land taxes. Next, Wang An-shi freed the peasants from state corvee, replacing it with a cash tax. Peasants were obliged to pay land taxes partly in products, partly also in money. To avoid hunger strikes, Wang An-shi organized a system of state grain barns, from which the population was given bread in times of famine. In order to suppress usury, Wang An-shi created a state bank where peasants could receive loans at low interest rates. Interesting were Wang An-Shih's attempts to organize state trade, partly using the tax fund, partly by the state purchasing products from merchants. Wang An-shi tried to carry out a major reform in military affairs. He intended to replace the mercenary army with universal conscription. The main army was supposed to be the peasant militia. Every three households had to supply one infantryman, every ten households - one cavalryman.
Wang An-shih's reforms met sharp opposition from officials and feudal lords. In 1075, Wang An-shih was dismissed. His plans were considered “dangerous” for the state, although his goal was to streamline the feudal state, freeing it from the most harmful elements.
In the 12th century, the position of the Sunn Empire did not improve. In 1126, due to the danger of invasions by northern peoples, the emperors had to move the capital to the south, to Hangzhou. Since 1127, the Sun dynasty has already controlled southern China. Northern China became part of the new large state of Jin, which absorbed the former Khitan state. At the beginning of the 13th century, Northern China was conquered by the Mongols. But in the southern part of the empire that remained subordinate to the emperor, there was constant unrest. During the period 1127-1132, 93 mass uprisings were recorded in official chronicles. In a reduced form, limited to southern China, the Sunn Empire lasted until 1279, when it was conquered by Genghis Khan's grandson Kublai Khan. Kublai founded a new Mongol dynasty, called the Yuan in Chinese. Thus, China was included in the system of the Mongol states of Central Asia for a long time.
Chinese culture of the period VI-XI centuries. was very well developed. It was significantly superior in its development to contemporary European culture in many respects. In China, irrigated and partly garden farming was practiced. The production of rice, cotton, tea, and raw silk was already the basis of Chinese agriculture. A lot of iron, copper, gold, and silver were mined in China. Chinese crafts achieved great success during the Tang Dynasty. Chinese porcelain, Chinese silk and cotton fabrics, various iron and copper products, together with tea and raw silk, constituted the main items of Chinese export. In China in the 11th century there were over 2 thousand cities. Some of them, such as Canton and Hangzhou, each had one million inhabitants.
The Chinese have highly developed science. Already in ancient times they knew writing (hieroglyphic), they were the first to invent writing paper. The Chinese were the first to begin to practice book printing, however, in its simplest form - in the form of cutting out book text on wooden boards and then printing it on paper. In China, at the beginning of the 8th century, the official government newspaper “Capital Bulletin” was born, which existed until the beginning of the 20th century.
The Chinese studied mathematics, astronomy, geography, and history. They are credited with the invention of the compass and gunpowder. In 754, the Hanling Academy of Sciences was organized in China, which is the world's oldest scientific institution on a national scale. China was famous for its chronicles. More than 500 volumes of chronicles remain from the Song Empire alone. China had large libraries containing hundreds of thousands of manuscripts. In a number of cities there were higher schools where future government officials were supposed to study. The examinations for the title of mandarin included a requirement of knowledge, in addition to the science of government, also of philosophy (mainly in the form of Confucianism) and literature. Thanks to the great linguistic diversity of China, as well as as a result of intensive connections with neighboring countries, philology, the compilation of dictionaries, and the study of grammatical and syntactic forms have received great development in China.
Chinese literature was already represented by classical works in the early Middle Ages. During the Tang period, two poets stood out in particular: Li Bo (699-762) and Du Fu (712-770). The first was the author of numerous lyrical poems, in which he reflected a purely secular, cheerful, epicurean-materialistic worldview. The second wrote in a more solemn style, processing in his poems the rich material of folk mythological and heroic epics.
China in the Middle Ages did a lot for the development of architecture and fine arts. Chinese buildings - palaces, temples, towers, city gates - were distinguished by less bulkiness compared to Indian ones, lightness and elegance of decoration. They were created from a wide variety of materials - wood, marble, iron. Their decorations included rich carvings, porcelain, and gold. The roofs of imperial palaces and the houses of the city's rich were often covered with gold sheets.
Painting reached a high level of development in medieval China. In addition to beautiful easel painting, the art of drawing, engraving, woodcut, wood burning, etc. has become widespread. Each household item of the ruling classes amazed with its artistic execution. Various products made of porcelain, bronze, ivory, wood and stone created world fame for the art and hard work of Chinese master craftsmen, who often spent years and even decades of their lives on the production of individual artistic objects.

China in the XI-XV centuries

The Mongol monarchy, created first in the north of China under Kubilal (1259-1294), spread to central and then to southern China. In 1728, the city of Hangzhou, the capital of the former Sunn dynasty, was taken. In 1279, southern China was completely conquered. Since 1264, the new dynasty was called the Yuan Dynasty.
The Mongol conquest was as difficult for China as it was for other countries in Asia and Europe. Continuing for several decades (if we count the campaigns of Genghis Khan as the beginning), it cost China countless sacrifices of people and property. The Mongols devastated Chinese fields and partly turned them into pastures for their herds. Cities and villages were subjected to merciless plunder. Heavy taxes were imposed on the Chinese people. The new Mongol officials were even more cruel than the old Chinese mandarins. But the Mongols themselves were already subject to strong Chinese influence in the 13th century. They mastered the Chinese language, Chinese writing, and adopted the entire system of Chinese government. On the other hand, thanks to China's inclusion in the system of Mongol states, China was able to take part in international trade again, and even to a greater extent than it had under the previous national dynasties of Tang and Sun. Iranian, Arab, Uzbek, and Indian merchants appeared in China. According to the Venetian traveler Marco Polo, who visited China under Khubilai, Chinese silk, porcelain, iron and copper were exported to all corners of the world. Continuing their wars of conquest outside China, the Mongol khan-emperors sold their plunder in China. Possessing unlimited despotic power and a large labor force for captives, the Mongols carried out large construction of new roads and canals. They also patronized the development of Chinese industry, which provided such valuable exports. But the economic and political benefits were enjoyed mainly by the Mongolian nobility and the Turkic and Iranian feudal lords and merchants attracted by the new dynasty. The old Chinese bureaucracy and the Chinese merchants felt disadvantaged. The situation of the broad working masses of China not only did not improve, but over the decades, as bureaucratic-fiscal oppression and feudal exploitation intensified, it became increasingly worse. In the 16th century, there were repeated palace conspiracies against the Mongol emperors. In wider circles of the population, national revolutionary organizations were created with the goal of liberating the country from foreign domination. In 1351, in the provinces of Henan and Shandong, there was a revolt of the red turbans, prepared by an alliance called the “White Lily”. In 1356, red turbans threatened the very capital of the Mongol dynasty - Beijing. In the 60s of the 14th century, uprisings against the Mongols already took place in most Chinese provinces. The main driving force of the national movement was the peasantry. One of the leaders of the peasant rebel army, Zhu Yuan-cheng, was proclaimed emperor (1368). He took the name Hong Wu. The new dynasty he founded was called the Ming dynasty. She ruled China from 1368 to 1644. Its capital was initially the city of Nanjing, but then the center was moved again to the city of Beijing.
The new dynasty, which emerged from the lower ranks of the people, initially pursued a policy that somewhat alleviated the situation of the working people. Thus, tax lists were revised in order to distribute taxes more evenly. As a result of the confiscation of the lands of the Mongol nobility, the number of state peasants increased significantly. More than once Hong Wu issued decrees on the collection of arrears. At the end of the 16th and in the first half of the 15th centuries, irrigation work was intensively carried out in the country. The government patronized the development of crafts in the country. The tax burden was somewhat weakened in relation to urban artisans. But at the same time, the peasant emperor did not intend to make any social revolution. Large landownership and privileged officials were preserved, although at first they were subject to some restrictions. Quite soon, the strengthened dynasty undertook aggressive campaigns aimed at seizing new lands, as well as expanding Chinese foreign markets. Even under Hong Wu, the emperor's power extended to Korea. Under his successors, Annam was conquered and military expeditions were carried out to Indonesia, Indochina, and Malacca. Some of the petty rulers of these countries recognized the supreme power of the Chinese emperor. The Chinese began to move to Indochina and Indonesia. In the 16th century, the Ming Empire no longer had to attack, but defend its own borders. In the west it was threatened by the Mongols. In 1550, one of the descendants of Genghis Khan with a large army approached Beijing and burned its suburbs. In the second half of the 16th century, China had to wage a tense struggle against Japanese aggression. Nevertheless, the Ming Dynasty found the strength to repel the samurai, who were driven out of the continent at the very end of this century.
From the beginning of the 16th century, Europeans began to penetrate into China. Portuguese ships were the first to arrive there in 1516. In the 40s of the 16th century, the Portuguese founded several colonies on the coasts of China. But by the beginning of the 50s, they were all destroyed by the local population, outraged by the extortion of the colonialists. Only in Macau, captured in 1557, did the Portuguese manage to gain a stronger foothold. In the second half of the 16th and early 17th centuries. The Spaniards, Dutch, English, and French appeared in China. But the Ming government did not allow any deep penetration of foreigners into the interior of China. The trade turnover with China in the 16th century among European merchants was insignificant when compared with trade in India and Indonesia. The second half of the 16th century saw the first Russian relations with China.

China in the 16th-17th centuries

China in the 18th-19th centuries

By the end of the 18th century, trade between China and European and Asian countries increased again. The Chinese sold tea, porcelain, and silk to Europe, but did not purchase any European goods, preferring to receive silver for their goods. The British began to import opium from India to China, gradually introducing the local population to opium smoking. The coastal regions of China became especially dependent on opium supplies. In the 19th century, the Opium Wars broke out in China.

The first Opium War in China took place in 1840-1842 between Great Britain and China. Great Britain defended its interests in trade, including the opium trade. The reason for the outbreak of war was the arrest of opium smugglers in China and the destruction of their cargo. Great Britain won the war, mainly thanks to the actions of its fleet. On August 29, 1842, the Treaty of Nanjing was signed, which secured Britain's victory in the war and also established China's obligation to pay an indemnity of $21 million and transfer Hong Kong Island to Great Britain. The war marked the beginning of a long weakening of China, oppression by foreign powers and depopulation of the local population.
The Second Opium War took place from 1856 to 1860 between China on one side and Great Britain and France on the other. Great Britain and France demanded the possibility of unrestricted trade and the admission of their ambassadors to Beijing. The reason for the outbreak of war was again the arrest of opium smugglers on a British ship assigned to Hong Kong. The war again ended in the defeat of China; on October 25, 1860, the Treaty of Beijing was signed, according to which China pledged to pay Great Britain and France 8 million liang, as well as expand their trade zone. According to the treaty, Great Britain ceded the southern part of the Kowloon Peninsula.
In 1894, China went to war with Japan. The Sino-Japanese War lasted until 1895. The main reason for the war was Japan's claims to control Korea and Manchuria, which at that time were vassals of China. China lost this war, and the Treaty of Shimonoseki was signed on April 17, 1895. According to this agreement, Korea gained independence from China, Taiwan, the Penghuledao Islands and the Liaodong Peninsula were ceded to Japan. Japan also received the opportunity to build industrial enterprises in China and import industrial equipment into the country.
The consequence of the Sino-Japanese War and the signed Treaty of Shimonoseki was a triple intervention by France, Russia and Germany. On April 23, 1985, these countries turned to Japan demanding the return of the Liaodong Peninsula to China, fearing Japanese control over Port Arthur. On May 10, 1985, Japan returned the Liaodong Peninsula to China, however, at the same time increasing the amount of indemnity assigned for China's loss of the Sino-Japanese War.
In 1897, German Chancellor Wilhelm II obtained Nicholas II's consent to establish a German naval base at Jiaozhou in Shandong. In November 1897, the Chinese killed German missionaries in Shandong. In response, Germany captured Jiaozhou. The Chinese had to lease Jiaozhou from Germany for 99 years and allow Germany to build two railways in Shandong, as well as a number of mining concessions.
In 1898, in June, a period called the “hundred days of reform” began in China. The Manchu Emperor Zai Tian recruited a group of young reformers to develop reforms that would allow China to leap forward in its development. The reforms affected the education system, railways, factories, agriculture, the armed forces, domestic and foreign trade, as well as the state apparatus. In September 1898, a palace coup took place, led by Empress Dowager Cixi. The coup was successful and all reforms were canceled.

China in the twentieth century

The 20th century in China began with the Yihetuan Uprising in May 1900. During the uprising, 222 Chinese Christians were killed and the Catholic Cathedral of Petang was besieged. On June 21, 1900, Empress Cixi declared war on Great Britain, Germany, Austria-Hungary, France, Italy, Japan, the United States and Russia. The countries agreed to jointly fight against the rebels. On February 8, 1904, the Russian-Japanese War began with the liberation of Manchuria by Russian troops on Chinese territory. This war ended in the defeat of Russia.
In 1911, the Wuchang Uprising began in China, which resulted in the Xinghai Revolution, which lasted from 1911 to 1913. The Qing Dynasty was overthrown and China was proclaimed the Republic of China. Tibet came under British influence. On February 12, 1912, the first president of China was proclaimed - Yuan Shikai, who had previously been the prime minister and commander-in-chief of the Chinese army. In 1913, after Yuan Shikai suppressed uprisings in the central and southern provinces, a dictatorship was established in the country.

When World War I began, China declared its neutrality and the inadmissibility of military action on its territory. However, Japan launched military operations on the territory of Shandong Province, a German colony. Japan managed to achieve the seizure of German territories and take control of the entire province.
In 1915, China was again proclaimed a monarchy, and Yuan Shikai as emperor. However, already in 1916, Yuan Shikai died. After his death, China began to disintegrate into military fiefdoms led by militaristic factions that began active relations with other countries, especially Great Britain and Japan.
In 1912, the Kuomintang Party was created in Guangzhou Province. In 1921, the Chinese Communist Party was created. In 1923, cooperation was organized between the Kuomintang and the Communist Party of China through the mediation of the Comintern. On January 20, 1924, the first congress of the Kuomintang was held in Guangzhou. On June 16, 1924, the Whampoa Military Academy was founded under the leadership of Chiang Kai-shek. The Kuomintang set a course for cooperation with the CPC and the Communist Party of the USSR. In March 1926, Chiang Kai-shek carried out a military coup in Canton, expelled the communists from the city, and three months later he was elected chairman of the Kuomintang and commander-in-chief of the armed forces. Having achieved high power, Chiang Kai-shek invited German advisers led by the former Reichswehr general von Seeckt. In December 1927, a communist uprising occurred in Canton, which was brutally suppressed by the Kuomintang.

In the fall of 1931, Japan occupied China. On July 7, 1937, World War II began for China, which ended in 1945 with the defeat of the Japanese army. On April 24, 1949, the Chinese People's Liberation Army won the civil war, destroying the Kuomintang. On October 1, 1949, the People's Republic of China was proclaimed, which was recognized by the USSR on October 2, 1949.
In 1966, a cultural revolution took place in China, the leader of which was Mao Zedong, who fought to strengthen his position in the CCP. It actually lasted until 1976, i.e. until the death of Mao Zedong. Massive purges were carried out within the ranks of the CCP, helping to strengthen the power of Mao Zedong.

In 1978, with the coming to power of Deng Xiaoping and Hu Yaobang, economic reforms in China were launched. The course was taken to build a market economic system with Chinese characteristics. Following this course until the end of the 20th century allowed China to take the position it is in now, in the 21st century.

Snow and plum blossoms argue in the spring; no one is ready to give up.
The writer put down his brush, tired of philosophical works.
The plum must lose in whiteness - the snow is three fen whiter,
The snow will yield a whole duan to the fragrance of mei!
(Lu Meipo. Poet of the Song era. “Snow and Plum Blossom”)

Ancient China is one of the most mysterious countries on our planet. Even now, this state is strikingly different from its neighbors in almost everything. But the main distinguishing feature of the Chinese is that they are not mystics, but practitioners. Nowhere have so many inventions been made as in this country. And religion and Ancient philosophy China shows the extraordinary wisdom of this people.

The emergence of the Shan-Yin state

The most ancient period in the history of China, which can be studied from materials obtained by archaeologists, as well as from available documents, is the era dating back to the 18th-12th centuries BC. e. At this time, the state of Shang-Yin existed here. Its history remains in legends, which say that around 1400 BC. e. a certain leader named Pan Geng, along with his tribe, came to Anyang and built the beautiful city of Shang on the Yellow River. The name of the settlement was given not only to the state, but also to an entire dynasty of kings.

The legend further says that the Zhou tribes living near the Wei River in the 12th century BC. e. captured the ancient country. After the defeat of the Shang capital, which occurred in 1124 BC. e., the conquerors also gave it the name Yin. The legend also said that ruler Pan Geng lived peacefully and did not fight with anyone.

Evidence of the existence of the state

Until the 30s of the last century, the Shan-Yin era was studied only on the basis of legend. But in 1928, archaeological excavations began, during which they found monuments of material culture that confirmed the legend about the existence of the Shan state. The ruins of the city were discovered in Anyang County, near the village of Xiaotun, in the north of Henan Province (China). The history of the Ancient World appears here in all its glory. In addition to the remains of numerous houses, craft workshops, a temple and a royal palace, about 300 tombs were found, 4 of which belonged to the royal dynasty. The last burials stood out among the rest with their impressive size and luxurious decoration.

Thanks to excavations, scientists concluded that already at that time there was a significant class stratification of society. In addition to the tombs of aristocrats, archaeologists have discovered simpler burials, as well as those that belonged to the obvious poor. In addition, the royal tomb turned out to be a real treasury. About 6 thousand objects made of bronze, gold, mother-of-pearl, jade and turtle were found in it. With these archaeological finds New opportunities have opened up in studying the centuries-old history of China.

Nature

This country is 80% mountains and plateaus. The nature here is extremely beautiful. Western China is the world's largest highland, so it has a sharply continental climate. The eastern part of the country is located slightly lower and has access to the sea, and there are also extensive river valleys, which led to the emergence of important trade routes in these places. This region has a mild climate and therefore differs from Western China in having a greater variety of vegetation. Naturally, it was in the east that the most ancient state with its own agricultural culture was formed.

The nature of Ancient China is somewhat different from modern one. Thus, in the northern part of this state, an incomparably larger area was covered with forests than now. This was determined by the inscriptions on the oracle bones, which told about hunts, often organized for deer. And in the Book of Songs there are references to vast forests. Green areas largely contributed to more uniform precipitation. This gave the local residents the opportunity to hunt. In addition, they had a lot of wood for making tools and building houses.

Natural conditions described in legends

Ancient China has always been famous for its legends. They often told about the people’s struggle with a dangerous river and about their stubborn struggle to organize agriculture. From ancient legends it is clear that the Chinese constantly fought against floods caused by the Yellow River. The waters overflowing their banks brought with them catastrophic disasters, destroying populous villages and destroying crops. In addition, the inhabitants of Ancient China tried to distribute water as evenly as possible throughout the country using an artificial irrigation system.

Population

The mountainous regions, plateaus and steppes that adjacent to river valleys have always been inhabited by numerous nomadic tribes. People of the Ancient China, which inhabited the fertile plains, constantly defended itself from the predatory raids of mountain, steppe and nomadic tribes, and this significantly hampered the development of not only culture, but also statehood. Gradually, the Chinese were able to colonize those regions where backward warlike peoples ruled. But nomadic cattle breeding persisted on these lands for a long time, since it was of great importance in the life of ancient states.

Nationalities inhabiting the country

Ancient China was quite diverse in its ethnic composition. It is known that this country occupies a vast territory, where a quarter of the population of the entire planet lives. Therefore, it seems natural that in ancient times it was not so homogeneous. Historical documents mention various tribes that constantly clashed with each other, fought and traded. On the northern and northwestern sides, the Chinese lived adjacent to the Mongols, Tungus and Manchus, and in the south and southwest - with the tribes of Tibet, India and Burma.

Beliefs

The religion of Ancient China was not personalized. Unlike other countries of the world, temples dedicated to any specific deity were not built here, and the role of priests was most often performed by government officials. Most of all, the Chinese revered various kinds of spirits that personified nature itself, as well as the deceased ancestors of the Shang Di.

The most important place in the life of this people was occupied by a cult dedicated to the spirits of the earth. Constant sacrifices were made to them, accompanied by prayers and requests for a good harvest. Most often they were written on turtle shells or lamb shoulder blades. And all this was accompanied by special rituals that were considered matters of national importance. These ceremonies were always seriously and carefully prepared.

The religion of Ancient China divided everything into two parts - yin (masculine) and yang (feminine). The first of them personified the bright, light, strong, i.e., everything positive that is in life, and the second, on the contrary, was associated with the Moon and embodied darkness and weakness.

Exercises

The peoples inhabiting Ancient China had their own worldview system. They believed that the world is chaos, and there are life-giving particles in it - tsy. The sky was considered the progenitor of all living things on earth. But he was not revered as a God to whom one could turn and ask for anything. For the Chinese, the sky is just some kind of abstract entity, absolutely indifferent to people. That is why there are many philosophies that replace deities with them.

The teachings of Ancient China are very diverse. It is impossible to describe them all in one article. Therefore, we will briefly consider the three most common ones.

Confucianism is a system based on ancient traditions that include duty and humanism. For his followers, the main thing is strict adherence to all rituals and rules. The founder of this teaching was an official belonging to the ancient family of Kung Fu Tzu.
Chinese Buddhism emerged due to its close proximity to India around the 1st century BC. e. The Chinese generally liked the ideas of Buddhism. But they accepted two points of this teaching without enthusiasm. The fact is that Indian monks could beg for alms, but for the Chinese such behavior was considered shameful. The second point was the idea of monasticism. Before the advent of Buddhism, such a way of life was not known here. The monastic order demanded that he give up his name, and for the Chinese this meant renouncing his ancestors.
Taoism has something in common with Confucianism. The teaching is based on the concept of Tao - a rather complex and multifaceted concept with which its followers must connect. This goal can be achieved only by observing moral laws, meditating and giving up unnecessary material values. The founder of the doctrine is the archivist Lao Tzu.

Discovery No. 1

The first of the greatest inventions of ancient China is paper. Confirmation of this fact can be found in Chinese chronicles dating back to the Eastern Han Dynasty. The document says that in 105 the paper was invented by the court eunuch Cai Long. Before this, records were made on special rolled scrolls made from bamboo strips, on clay or wooden tablets, on silk scrolls, etc. More ancient writings, dating back to the 2nd century BC. e. (reign of the Shang Dynasty), were written on turtle shells.

Already in the 3rd century, paper invented by Tsai Lun was widely used. The technology for its production was as follows: a mixture of mulberry bark, hemp, fabrics and nets unsuitable for fishing was boiled until it turned into pulp. Then it was ground until smooth and a little water was added. The resulting mixture was loaded into a special reed sieve and shaken. After this procedure, an even and thin fibrous layer formed at the bottom. Then it was thrown back onto flat boards. Several such castings were made at once. Then the boards were laid on top of each other and tied tightly, while a load was also placed on top. The use of this technology made the paper sheet durable, light, smooth and convenient for writing.

Discovery No. 2

After the invention of Ancient China No. 1, printing appeared. For the first time, its entire technological process was described by the Chinese scientist Shen Ko in 1088. The book says that the invention of typeface and baked clay letters belongs to a certain master Bi Sheng.

The discovery of printing in the 9th century brought with it a change in weaving techniques. At the end of the Tang era, books that were previously in the form of scrolls turned into a stack of paper that resembled a familiar brochure. During the reign of the Yuan dynasty, which is 1271-1368, the spine of the book began to be made of stiffer paper, and later stitched with thread. Fortunately, many books from ancient China have survived to this day. The Diamond Sutra is considered the first full-fledged printed publication. It was made during the Tang Dynasty, which ruled from 618 to 907. The length of the Diamond Sutra scrolls is 5.18 m.

Discovery No. 3

The next most important invention is gunpowder, which appeared in the 10th century. It was used as filling for incendiary projectiles. Judging by Chinese chronicles, barreled gunpowder weapons were first used in battles in 1132. It was a bamboo tube into which gunpowder was placed and set on fire. Thus, noticeable burns were inflicted on the enemy. 125 years later, the Chinese invented a gun, but this time it fired bullets. It was a bamboo tube that was loaded with gunpowder and bullets. Around the end of the 13th - beginning of the 14th centuries, iron cannons that fired stone cannonballs appeared in China.

But gunpowder was used not only for military purposes. It was used as a disinfectant in the treatment of all kinds of wounds and ulcers, as well as during numerous epidemics. Almost the entire Ancient East, China was no exception, believed that all evil spirits were afraid not only of loud sounds, but also of bright lights. Therefore, since time immemorial, Chinese New Year In the courtyards, fires were traditionally lit in which bamboo was burned. Starting to burn, it hissed and burst with a crash. With the advent of gunpowder charges, which created much more noise and light, the old way of celebrating began to be abandoned. Nowadays, it is difficult to imagine the New Year without multi-colored fireworks, which are used almost all over the world.

Discovery No. 4

The next invention is the compass. Its prototype appeared during the Han Dynasty, which ruled from 202 BC. e. to 220 AD But its original purpose was fortune telling, not navigation. The ancient compass looked like a plate with a spoon placed on it, the handle of which pointed strictly south. This device, which determines the cardinal directions, was first described in the Chinese book “Wujing Zongyao” in 1044. Another type of compass was cast from iron or steel blanks in the shape of a fish, which was placed in water. To accurately determine the course, two of the above-mentioned devices were usually used at once.

A more advanced design of this device was described by the same Chinese scientist Shen Ko in 1088 in “Notes on the Brook of Dreams.” In his work, he described in detail the magnetic declination, which indicates true north, as well as the structure of the compass itself with a needle.

Other inventions

Some discoveries of the Chinese greatly contributed to the fact that most areas of culture and art became accessible not only to rich people, but also to the broad masses of the common population. It is quite difficult to list absolutely all the inventions of Ancient China. Here are just a few of them: tea, silk, fork, porcelain, Toothbrush, money, noodles, gong, drum, playing cards, crossbow and many more. etc. But most scientists believe that the main inventions were paper, printing, compass and gunpowder.

China - begin in the Tibetan Plateau and carry a lot of sand and silt to the Pacific Ocean. The sea into which the Huang He flows is called Yellow. River sediments are very fertile, people have long settled on the banks of rivers. But the Yellow River and Yangtze often overflowed their banks and changed the position of their riverbed, which led to severe floods and the death of many people. Over thousands of years, the Chinese built thousands of kilometers of dams—protective earthworks—along the Yellow River and Yangtze. But floods still threaten the country. The nature of China, its state structure, and the customs of the people were described by Marco Polo upon his return.

History of Ancient China

1766-1027 BC e. - reign of the Shang Dynasty.
1027-221 BC e. - reign of the Zhou dynasty.
OK. 722-481 BC e. — the kings of the Zhou dynasty lose power. Wars between nobles (Spring and Autumn periods).
481-221 BC e. - seven kingdoms are at war with each other (the era of the warring states, or the period of the Warring States).
221-210 BC e. - reign of Qin Shi Huang, the first Chinese emperor.
202 BC e. - 220 AD e. - Han Dynasty.

Shang Dynasty

By about 1765 BC. e. a huge part of China was under the rule of the royal family (or dynasty) of the Shang.

Zhou Dynasty

Around 1027 BC e. The Shang dynasty was defeated by the Zhou tribe. The new rulers of the Zhou dynasty allowed noble people to own land. In return, they had to remain loyal to them and help them during wars.

Over time, the nobility became so powerful that power began to slip out of the hands of the Zhou dynasty. The nobles founded their own small kingdoms and constantly fought with each other, trying to grab a larger piece of land.

Qin Dynasty

Han Dynasty

Soon after the death of China's first emperor, Qin Shi Huang, rebellions broke out and the Qing Empire collapsed. In 202 BC. e. General Liu Bang, having extended his power over the entire country, proclaimed himself emperor. He became the founder of the new Han dynasty, which ruled China for the next four hundred years. The capital of the ancient emperors of the Han Dynasty was the city of Handan.

Officials

The emperors of the Han Dynasty had many officials to help them run their empire. Officials collected taxes, monitored the condition of roads and canals, and checked whether all subjects were obedient to the law.

Anyone who wanted to become an official had to pass a test. The applicant was asked questions about ancient poetry and the teachings of the philosopher Confucius.

Silk Road

From about 105 BC. e. Chinese merchants cross Asia and enter into trade relations with people in the west. Since then, along the legendary Silk Road, which stretched from China to the Mediterranean Sea, they began to carry Chinese silk, spices and precious stones on camels.

Wars with the Huns

The emperors of the Han dynasty fought wars to defend the empire from the Hunnic tribes to the north, and eventually prevailed over them. The Huns no longer raided China and went west.

Fall of the Han Dynasty

The emperor's power was weakened by discord between the royal family and their courtiers. In 220 AD e. The last emperor of the Han Dynasty abdicated the throne and the empire collapsed.

Trade

Ambassadors, warriors, and merchants of China reached the center of Asia along the Great Silk Road. It received this name from the main transported product - Chinese silk. China is the birthplace of silk, paper, and porcelain.

Europeans began trading with China during the times of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome. Then it passed into the hands of Arab merchants.

Life and life in Ancient China

OK. 5000 BC e. — Agriculture penetrates into China.
OK. 4000 BC e. — they begin to grow rice.
OK. 2700 BC e. - the beginning of silk weaving.
OK. 1400 BC e. - writings on oracle bones.
551 BC e. - birth of Confucius.
OK. 1 - 100 n. e. - spread of Buddhism from India.
OK. 100 AD e. - invention of paper.

Writing of Ancient China

Writing appeared in China around 1400 BC. e. The priests, wanting to predict the future, carved questions on the fortune-telling bones. The bones were heated until they began to crack, and then they read the patterns formed by the cracks, trying to find answers to their questions.

Architecture of Ancient China

the great Wall of China

2,300 years ago, the Chinese built a huge stone wall about 5,000 km long to protect themselves from raids by nomadic herders. Part of it has survived to this day. It is clearly visible from space and is often depicted on geographical maps.

Confucius

A thinker named Kongzi (or Confucius) lived during a troubled era in ancient China. He taught that wars will stop only when people understand how they should behave. Subjects must obey their ruler, and a ruler must be kind to his people. Material from the site

Science of Ancient China

The ancient Chinese were the first to invent paper. They lowered a bamboo sieve into a mixture of crushed tree bark, plants and rags. A thin layer of mass remained on the sieve, which was dried.

Chinese scientists invented many instruments that are still used today: a compass, a wheelbarrow and a ship's rudder. The ancient Chinese invented a device for detecting earthquakes - a bowl, on the sides of which there were metal dragon heads with a ball in its mouth. During an earthquake, the ball fell into the mouth of a toad statue located under each dragon head - this is how the direction of the earthquake was determined.

Silk production

The Chinese were the first to learn how to unwind cocoons and weave fabric from silk threads. Silk thread is secreted by silkworm caterpillars (a type of butterfly), which weave a cocoon from it. Before unwinding, the cocoons were washed in a vat of hot water. To maintain the flame, women blew on the fire.

Use of metal

During the Shang Dynasty, Chinese artisans learned to make weapons and utensils from bronze. The population preferred to prepare food and wine for their deceased ancestors, whom they considered gods, in bronze cauldrons with complex patterns.