Dictionary of linguistic terms. Linguistic terms: mini-dictionary for schoolchildren Linguistic terms

When studying the Russian language at school, quite often there are linguistic terms that are not always clear to schoolchildren. We tried to compile a short list of the most used concepts with explanations. In the future, schoolchildren can use it when studying the Russian language.

Phonetics

Linguistic terms used in the study of phonetics:

• Phonetics is a branch of linguistics that deals with the study of sound structure.
• Sound is the smallest particle of speech. Sounds are highlighted.
• A syllable is one or often several sounds pronounced in one exhalation.
• Stress is the emphasis of a vowel sound in speech.

• Orthoepy is a section of phonetics that studies the pronunciation norms of the Russian language.

Spelling

When studying spelling, you must use the following terms:

• Spelling is a section that studies spelling norms.
• Spelling - spelling a word in accordance with the application of spelling rules.

Lexicology and phraseology

• A lexeme is a vocabulary unit, a word.
• Lexicology is a branch of the Russian language that studies lexemes, their origin and functioning.
• Synonyms are words that have the same meaning when spelled differently.
• Antonyms are words that have opposite meanings.
• Paronyms are words that have similar spellings but different meanings.
• Homonyms are words that have the same spelling, but at the same time they have different meanings.

• Phraseology is a branch of linguistics that studies phraseological units, their features and principles of functioning in language.
• Etymology is the science of the origin of words.
• Lexicography is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules for compiling dictionaries and their study.

Morphology

A few words about what Russian linguistic terms are used when studying the morphology section.

• Morphology is the science of language that studies the parts of speech.
• Noun - nominal independent It denotes the subject being discussed and answers the questions: “who?”, “what?”.
• Adjective - denotes a sign or state of an object and answers the questions: “which?”, “which?”, “which?”. Refers to independent nominal parts.

• A verb is a part of speech that denotes an action and answers the questions: “what does it do?”, “what will it do?”.
• Numeral - denotes the number or order of objects and at the same time answering the questions: “how many?”, “which?”. Refers to independent parts of speech.
• Pronoun - indicates an object or person, its attribute, without naming it.
• An adverb is a part of speech that denotes an action. Answers the questions: “how?”, “when?”, “why?”, “where?”.
• A preposition is an auxiliary part of speech that connects words.
• A conjunction is a part of speech that connects syntactic units.
• Particles are words that give emotional or semantic coloring to words and sentences.

Additional terms

In addition to the terms we mentioned earlier, there are a number of concepts that it is advisable for a student to know. Let's highlight the main linguistic terms that are also worth remembering.

• Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies sentences: the features of their structure and functioning.
• Language is a sign system that is constantly in development. Serves for communication between people.
• Idiolect is the speech characteristics of a particular person.
• Dialects are varieties of one language that are contrasted with its literary version. Depending on the territory, each dialect has its own characteristics. For example, okanye or akanye.

• Abbreviation is the formation of nouns by abbreviating words or phrases.
• Latinism is a word that came into use from the Latin language.
• Inversion is a deviation from the generally accepted word order, which makes the rearranged element of the sentence stylistically marked.

Stylistics

The following linguistic terms, examples and definitions of which you will see, are often encountered when considering

• Antithesis is a stylistic device based on opposition.
• Gradation is a technique based on intensifying or weakening homogeneous means of expression.
• Diminutive is a word formed using a diminutive suffix.
• Oxymoron is a technique in which combinations of words with seemingly incompatible lexical meanings are formed. For example, "living corpse".
• Euphemism is the replacement of a word related to obscene language with neutral ones.
• An epithet is a stylistic trope, often an adjective with expressive connotations.

This is not a complete list of necessary words. We have provided only the most necessary linguistic terms.

conclusions

While studying the Russian language, schoolchildren are constantly faced with words whose meanings are unknown to them. To avoid problems in learning, it is advisable to create your own personal dictionary of school terms in the Russian language and literature. Above we have given the main linguistic words-terms that you will encounter more than once when studying at school and university.

BRIEF VOCABULARY

linguistic terms

Muallif: R. Nabieva

Yaratilgan : Angren, 2005

Kategoriya: Linguistics

Bolim: Terminology

University: Toshkent viloyati davlat pedagogy institute

Faculty: Khorizhiy tillar

Kafedra: Rus tili va adabiyoti department

Elektron fails: RAR

About the construction of a dictionary.

1. The dictionary covers only the most commonly used terms in the disciplines of general linguistics.

2. Words - terms are arranged in alphabetical order.

3. Each term, together with the material related to it, forms a dictionary entry.

“A brief dictionary of linguistic terms” is addressed to students of philology of the Russian-Tajik department of pedagogical universities; it is compiled on the basis of many years of teaching activity of the authors.

The advantage of this dictionary is its emphasis on the most commonly used terms that reflect the issues of the entire training course. Many dictionary entries not only provide references to the source language, but also reveal the main features of the phenomena denoted by a particular term, illustrated with relevant examples.

The methodological manual contributes to the most effective assimilation of educational material by students, expansion of the linguistic and general educational horizons of the future literature teacher

Preface

“A brief dictionary of linguistic terms” is compiled as an educational and training dictionary, necessary in the student audience with Russian and Tajik languages ​​of instruction. It is intended for students studying in the specialties “Foreign languages”, “Russian language and literature”, “Native language and literature”.

About the construction of a dictionary.

4. The dictionary covers only the most commonly used terms in the disciplines of general linguistics.

5. Words - terms are arranged in alphabetical order.

6. Each term, together with the material related to it, forms a dictionary entry.

Dictionary entries are not only brief definitions of linguistic terms, but also a fairly detailed interpretation of them with illustrations from trusted sources.

It is well known that compiling such dictionaries is a difficult and painstaking task, so there may be some omissions in the proposed dictionary.

Abbreviation- a compound word made up of initial elements: department store, university, UN.

Agglutination– mechanical attachment of standard unambiguous affixes to unchangeable stems or roots: bola – bolalar – bolalar ha; id(ti) – id And- go those .

Accommodation– partial adaptation of articulations of adjacent consonant and vowel sounds: carried [n’os], row [r’at],what [ w‹ t], was [ wə z].

Active vocabulary- part of the vocabulary of the language, actively used in all spheres of society.

Alloforms– a variant of the morpheme identical in meaning, this specific manifestation of the phoneme: friend - friend - friend - ; English [-z], [- s], [- iz] – as indicators of the plural of nouns.

Allophones– a group of sounds in which a given phoneme is realized, a specific manifestation of the phoneme: I caught a catfish myself [with maP imalWith ma].

Altai family- a macrofamily of languages, uniting, on the basis of supposed genetic belonging, the Turkic, Mongolian, Tungus-Manchu groups of languages ​​and the isolated Korean and Japanese languages.

Alphabet letters- a trophic system in which a separate sign conveys a separate sound.

Amorphous languages– isolating languages, which are characterized by the absence of inflectional and morphological forms, root languages; These include the languages ​​of the Sino-Tibetan family: gao shan - “high mountains”, shan gao “high mountains”, hao ren - “good person”, ren hao - “man loves me”, siyu hao - “do good”, hao dagwih - “very dear”.

Analytical form of the word– a complex form of a word formed by a combination of a function and a significant word: stronger, better.

Analogy- the process of assimilation of some elements of a language to others, related to it, but more widespread and productive.

Antonyms– words belonging to the same part of speech, having opposite, but correlative meanings: young - old, day - night.

Argo(French Argot. “jargon”) - the secret language of a socially limited group of the population, opposing itself to other people: thieves' argot, student argot, school argot.

Argotisms– words limited in their use socially, being emotionally expressive equivalents of stylistically neutral words of a literary language: cut off - “fail the exam”, tail - “failed exam”, memorize - “learn”.

Archaisms– outdated name of existing realities; obsolete words replaced in modern language by synonyms: lovitva – “hunting”, bosom – “chest”, neck – “neck”.

Assimilation– likening sounds to each other within a word or phrase: bone - bones [bones], little book - book [knishk], high - highest [higheri], deception - [ mman].

Affixes– service morphemes that modify the meaning of the root or express the relationship between words in a phrase and sentence.

Affixation– 1. creation of a new word by adding certain affixes to the generating stem (or word); 2. a way of expressing grammatical meanings using affixes.

Affiliating languages– languages ​​in which affixes play an important role in their grammatical structure.

Affixoid– affixes that occupy an intermediate position between root and auxiliary morphemes, by origin go to independent roots and words: linguistics, literary studies, geosciences, airlines, airmail.

Africates– (Latin Affricata “ground in”) sounds in which the bow opens gradually, with a slit phase following the bow: [h], [y].

Lateral consonants– (lateral) sounds formed by the passage of air along the sides of the closure of the tip of the tongue with teeth or alveoli, as well as the middle part of the tongue with the hard palate: [l], [l’].

This dictionary of terms used in standard school courses of the Russian language is a thesaurus-type dictionary, or ideographic. Originally the term thesaurus As a rule, dictionaries were designated that gave an idea of ​​the lexical system of a language with maximum completeness. Maximum - both in the sense that they included all the words of a given language, and in the sense that these words were accompanied by examples of their use in the texts. By definition, a thesaurus is a dictionary with an unlimited selection, which is why the following naming was used for it: thesaurus translated from ancient Greek means ‘treasure, treasury’ , that is, a complete collection of information about all the words of a particular language.

Currently thesaurus called a dictionary in which it does not necessarily have to be presented all vocabulary of a given language, but in it all words are grouped by thematic headings. The position of a lexical unit of a language (word or phrase) in a thesaurus is determined by its meaning in that language. And, accordingly, knowledge of the types and system of semantic relations into which a given word enters allows us to judge its meaning.

In some works (and not only philological ones), the thesaurus is understood quite broadly: it is interpreted as a certain representation and description of a system of knowledge about reality, which is possessed either by an individual carrier of information or by some group of such carriers.

The term is also used in linguistic literature ideographic dictionary(from Greek idéa ‘concept, idea, image’ and gráphō ‘I write’). This is a dictionary in which words are not arranged in alphabetical order, but based on their semantic proximity. In such a dictionary, each word occupies a certain cell of some pre-built classification of concepts, although within the framework of a particular semantic group, words can appear one after another and alphabetically. The main purpose of an ideographic dictionary is to provide a semantic picture of the environment of a particular concept and a picture of the entire vocabulary of a given language as a whole. This kind of dictionary comes not from the word as a unit of language, but from the concept expressed by this word.

Within ideographic dictionaries we can distinguish:

. ideological dictionaries, which are based on the logical classification of the conceptual space of the language;

. analogous, or associative dictionaries based on psychological associations of those objects and phenomena of non-linguistic reality that are named by the central word;

. thematic dictionaries, where words are grouped according to certain topics;

. picturesque dictionaries in which the meanings of thematically grouped words are revealed through the use of pictures and other types of visual illustrations.

We offer an option ideological ideographic dictionary, or dictionary-thesaurus in the modern sense of the word. This dictionary-thesaurus contains linguistic terminology used in the Russian language school course.

Today in secondary schools there are several lines of textbooks and educational kits “Russian language”, recommended by the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation for secondary schools.

In all sets, educational material is structured by levels from phonetics to syntax, including sections on spelling, punctuation and speech development. At the same time, there are certain discrepancies in the presentation of the theory (in particular, there is no uniform approach to transcribing, isolating parts of speech, describing phrases and types of subordinate clauses, etc.), there is no uniform order of sections and topics, and there is obvious discrepancy in the terminology used. All this creates tangible difficulties both for the student (especially when moving from one school to another) and when forming the requirements for applicants to a humanitarian university.

It is known that in a number of schools the Russian language is studied using alternative and experimental curricula, which offer a significantly modified course. In addition, the introduction of the Unified State Exam in secondary schools has contributed to the fact that most of the time in Russian language lessons is now allocated to training and consolidating the spelling and punctuation skills necessary to complete test tasks. A Russian language teacher has practically no opportunity within the school curriculum to fully and deeply present the Russian language as a complex, hierarchically organized system with its own internal logic.

The main objectives of this dictionary are systematization, unification, description and interpretation of modern school linguistic terminology, which is common to all(or for the vast majority) school textbooks and manuals on the Russian language. But in some cases, we prefer a more in-depth look at a particular section of the course, when this contributes to the creation of a coherent and logically consistent picture and a more detailed development of individual groups of concepts.

Thesaurus-type dictionaries help to structure, classify and model concepts and connections related to a particular scientific field. A coherent terminological system is a kind of model of knowledge in a particular field of science, reflecting its internal logic. As a rule, it has a complex organization and is a multi-level system, and individual terms are not just included in the system of concepts of the corresponding branch of knowledge, but also structure it in a certain way. This is exactly what we see relevance and practical value proposed school dictionary.

This work is the first experience in integrating and systematizing the basic composition of linguistic concepts and terms used in secondary schools, but we would like to note that when working on this dictionary we tried to follow the tradition established in the 1980-1990s. Head of the Department of General and Comparative Historical Linguistics, Faculty of Philology, Moscow State University. M.V.Lomonosov Academician Yu.V. Rozhdestvensky, who rightly considered teaching the native language to be the most important part of applied linguistics.

In the 1990s, under the leadership of Yuri Vladimirovich Rozhdestvensky, a preliminary version of the dictionary-thesaurus of school education terms “Circle of Knowledge” was conceptually developed and compiled, which he worked on until his death. He saw such a system of concepts, built on the principle “from the general to the particular,” as a systematized set of information of various kinds necessary for schoolchildren and school teachers - from mathematical and biological concepts to physical education exercises. This kind of dictionary-thesaurus was considered by Yu.V. Rozhdestvensky to be the main book for both schoolchildren and school teachers.

Unfortunately, during the life of Yu.V. Rozhdestvensky, no parts of the thesaurus he conceived were published, and after his death, only two small editions of this dictionary were published: Rozhdestvensky Yu.V. Glossary of terms (General education thesaurus): Morality. Moral. Ethics. M.: Flinta, Nauka, 2002; Rozhdestvensky Yu.V. Glossary of terms (General education thesaurus): Society. Semiotics. Economy. Culture. Education. M.: Flinta, Nauka, 2002. Our project, of course, arose as a tribute to the memory of Yuri Vladimirovich.

Separately, we consider it necessary to stipulate the following. It is impossible to reduce linguistic terminology in general and school terminology in particular to a single denominator. In linguistics and in the school practice of teaching linguistic disciplines (Russian language, foreign languages, and in some schools - classical ancient languages ​​and the foundations of linguistics), there is a variety of approaches and concepts, and therefore a variety of terms and concepts behind them. We pay special attention to the fact that:

the proposed definitions of terms are not considered by the authors as some kind of alternative to those definitions that are presented in existing dictionaries, encyclopedias and textbooks;

since this dictionary is not encyclopedic, the examples given in a number of dictionary entries (in particular, on the various uses of certain forms of the verb or on different types of dictionaries in the “Lexicography” section) do not pretend to be complete and are not considered by the authors as all-encompassing and exhaustive.

Formally, work on the dictionary text was distributed as follows. I.I. Bogatyreva wrote the following parts: “Main sections of the science of language”, “Morphemics”, “Word formation” and “Lexicology” (in full), as well as parts of the section “Morphology” (starting from the article “Declension” to the end of the first subsection and within the subsection “Parts of Speech” - from its beginning to the article “Complex Numerals” inclusive) and the first part of the section “Syntax” (from its beginning to the article “Improper Direct Speech” inclusive). O.A. Voloshina wrote the following parts: “General Questions”, “Phonetics”, “Writing” and “Lexicography” (in full), as well as parts of the section “Morphology” (from the beginning of the section to the article “Case” inclusive and inside the subsection “ Parts of speech" - from the article "Pronominal words" to the end) and the second part of the section "Syntax" (from the article "Sentence" to the end of the section).

In conclusion, we would like to express our sincere gratitude to our reviewers A.A. Volkov, O.V. Nikitin, N.A. Borisenko for their attentive and friendly reading of this dictionary and for the valuable constructive comments they expressed. We are grateful to M.Yu. Sidorova, whose critical comments helped us eliminate certain shortcomings that were in the handwritten version of the text. Special words of gratitude and appreciation go to the editorial board of the newspaper “Russian Language” of the Publishing House “1 September” represented by L.A. Gonchar and E.A. Ivanova, without whose participation and support it would be difficult for us to imagine writing this text.

All terms in the dictionary are divided into groups depending on the thematic sections of the Russian language school course in which this concept is used. The dictionary has the following structure:

Main branches of the science of language

General issues

Phonetics

Morphemics

Word formation

Morphology

Syntax

Lexicology

Lexicography.

These sections basically correspond to the levels of language structure. Terms are collected into nests according to their meaning and grouped around a basic concept, with which they are most often connected by genus-species or cause-and-effect relationships. Nests, in turn, are combined into subsections, etc.

At the beginning of each part there is a list of terms included in it, without interpretation: so that you can see the logic of their succession to each other and the relationships into which they enter. After this, interpretations of the same terms given in the same order are offered. Combining an ideographic dictionary with an explanatory one helps to develop optimal interpretations of the meanings of words. After all, the semantic content of a term is better and more fully revealed by determining its place in the structure of concepts of the corresponding field of knowledge.

To find the desired term in the dictionary, you need to refer to the Alphabetical Index, which is a list of terms in alphabetical order indicating the page on which the interpretation of the term you are looking for is provided.

The heading word of a dictionary entry is given in bold, while for borrowed terms their etymology is given in brackets. A dictionary entry contains a definition of a term and a detailed explanation of the corresponding linguistic concept.

Many dictionary entries are provided with examples. As examples, individual words, phrases and entire sentences are given (often quotations from works of fiction), clearly illustrating various aspects of the characterized linguistic phenomenon. All illustrations are in italics. If it is necessary to highlight a single word, morpheme or sound in the quoted text, then bold italics are used.

In a dictionary entry devoted to the interpretation of a term, there are often references to other dictionary entries, since each term does not appear in isolation, but is closely related to other terms of the same conceptual area. Such references are given in bold type and enclosed in parentheses.

Readers' attention should be drawn to the fact that almost all terms from the first section are presented in subsequent sections of the dictionary, but with different meanings, since they are used in scientific and educational literature to designate both a certain section of linguistics and one or another subsystem of the language itself , For example:

Morphemics 1- a branch of linguistics that studies the structural features of morphemes, their relationships to each other and to the word as a whole, the morphemic structure of words and their forms.

Morphemics 2- part of the language system, which is a set of morphemes isolated in words, their types and techniques for connecting with each other within a word.

The tables, diagrams and drawings used in the text of the dictionary help to compactly and clearly illustrate the phenomena being explained.

For the convenience of readers, a minimum number of generally accepted abbreviations are used, which are easily deciphered and widely used in any scientific and educational literature.

Main branches of the science of language

Phonetics(from the Greek phōnētikós - sound, voice) - a branch of linguistics that studies the sound structure of language. The subject of phonetics consists of such material linguistic units as speech sounds, syllables, word stress, phrasal intonation.

Since the sound matter of a language can be studied from different sides, it is customary to distinguish between acoustic, articulatory, perceptual and functional phonetics.

Acoustic phonetics studies the sounds of human speech as physical phenomena and describes their characteristics such as pitch (depending on the frequency of vibrations), loudness or strength (depending on the amplitude), duration and timbre of the sound. Articulatory phonetics examines the anatomy and physiology of the human speech apparatus, describes which speech organs are involved in the pronunciation of certain types of sounds. Perceptual Phonetics studies the features of perception and analysis of speech sounds by the human hearing organ - the ear. Functional phonetics (phonology) considers sound phenomena as elements of the language system that serve to form morphemes, words and sentences.

One can also distinguish descriptive, historical and comparative phonetics. Item descriptive phonetics - features and general conditions for the formation of sounds characteristic of a given language in a certain period of its existence (most often the phonetic structure of a modern language is taken), patterns of changes in sounds in the flow of speech, general principles of dividing the sound flow into sounds, syllables and larger pronunciation units. Historical phonetics traces the development of the sound structure of a language over a long period of time (sometimes from the moment the language appeared). Comparative phonetics compares the sound structure of the native language with other languages, which allows not only to better see and assimilate the features of a foreign language, but also to understand the patterns of the native one.

Orthoepy(Greek orthoépeia, from orthós - correct and épos - speech) - a section of phonetics dealing with pronunciation standards, their justification and establishment.

The concept of orthoepy includes both the pronunciation of individual sounds, including taking into account the specific conditions of their implementation, and the sound design of entire words or statements. For example, for the Russian language, the place of stress associated with the formation of grammatical forms is of great importance.

The orthoepic norms of the Russian language developed in their most important features back in the first half of the 17th century. as the norms of the Moscow dialect, which over time began to acquire the character of national norms. They were finally formed in the second half of the 19th century, although in a number of cases there were fluctuations. Modern pronunciation norms of the Russian literary language include both features of Moscow and Leningrad (St. Petersburg) pronunciation.

The orthoepic norm, unlike the orthographic one, does not always affirm as the only correct one of the pronunciation options, rejecting the other as erroneous. In some cases, the coexistence of several equal options is allowed, where, as a rule, one is leading or more desirable. So, the correct pronunciation is considered e[zh’zh’]u, in and[zh’zh’]at, [zh’zh’]e with a soft long sound [zh’], and e[lj]y, in and[zhzh]at, [zhzh]e- with a hard long; Right before[zh’zh’]i And before[zh']i, ba[s’]ein And ba[s]ein, [door And [door, P[o]esia And P[a]esia.

Orthoepic norms are established by linguists - specialists in the field of phonetics, who take into account a variety of factors: the prevalence of the pronunciation variant, its compliance with the objective laws of language development, connection with tradition, etc.

Graphic arts(Greek graphikḗ, from gráphō - I write, I draw) - a section of the science of writing that defines the inventory of signs used in a given writing system (these signs are usually called graphemes), and the rules and methods of designating sound units in writing.

The graphic system of Russian writing is based on the Cyrillic alphabet and is arranged quite rationally: the number of phonemes of the Russian language is slightly greater than the number of letters of the Russian alphabet. In 1928, N.F. Yakovlev derived and substantiated a mathematical formula for constructing the most convenient and economical alphabet, and Russian graphics almost correspond to this formula.

The rationality of Russian graphics is determined primarily by its syllabic principle, which manifests itself in the transmission of soft consonants and the phoneme j “yot” in writing.

It should be understood that both graphics and spelling are related to the rules for using graphemes, but in different ways. Graphics studies and formulates rules for the correspondence of letters to phonemes only in cases where the choice of letter is determined solely by the sound environment (or sound context) and prescribes the use of certain letters regardless of what words they are included in. Spelling is a system of rules for writing significant units of a given language.

Spelling(Greek orthographía, from orthós - correct and gráphō - I write) - a section of the science of language that deals with spelling standards and prescribes the choice of one of the spelling options allowed by graphics.

The central section of spelling establishes a set of rules and principles for designating speech sounds with letters in writing. Modern Russian orthography uses several principles: morphological, phonetic and traditional.

Other sections of spelling establish rules for the continuous, separate or hyphenated spelling of words and their parts; determine the rules for transferring parts of words from one line to another (taking into account both syllabic division and the morphemic structure of the word); formulate rules for the use of uppercase and lowercase letters, as well as the design of graphic abbreviations. The principles of rendering borrowed words (mainly proper names) are separately defined. Typically, either a transcriptional orthographic method is used, or a transliteration method, i.e. Foreign words are written taking into account their pronunciation or letter by letter, taking into account their spelling, using a different alphabet.

The theory of Russian orthography and the definition of the principles of its construction originate from the works of V.K. Trediakovsky and M.V. Lomonosov (mid-18th century). In the history of Russian writing, there were two reforms (1708-1710 and 1917-1918), which contributed to both the streamlining of the alphabet and the improvement of spelling rules. But the historical changes that are constantly occurring in the language, the enrichment of its vocabulary, require regular work to improve the set of spelling rules. For this purpose, a Spelling Commission was created at the Imperial Academy of Sciences in 1904. Nowadays, the Spelling Commission works at the Russian Language Institute. V.V. Vinogradov RAS, both theoretical linguists and practicing teachers take part in it.

Lexicology(from the Greek lexikós - relating to the word and lógos - teaching) is a branch of linguistics that studies the vocabulary of a language, or vocabulary.

The main objectives of lexicology are:

Definition of a word as a unit of vocabulary;

The study of words in their relation to non-linguistic reality;

Analysis of the semantic structure of a word;

Definition and description of the main types of lexical units;

Characteristics of the lexical-semantic system of the language, that is, identification of the internal organization of lexical units and analysis of their connections and relationships;

History of the formation of vocabulary, patterns of its functioning and analysis of trends in the development of the modern lexical system of the language;

Principles of functional-stylistic classification of words.

Lexicology also explores ways to replenish and develop vocabulary, based both on the use of internal resources of a given language, and on attracting resources from the outside (borrowings from other languages).

We can distinguish historical, comparative and applied lexicology. Historical Lexicology studies the history of words, including in connection with the history of the concepts named by these words, changes in various groups of words - both in the literary language and in dialects, processes in the semantic structure of words, etc. Comparative Lexicology studies the vocabulary of different languages, and both individual words and groups of words, or semantic fields (for example, kinship terms, color terms) can be compared. To the sphere applied Lexicology includes lexicography, speech culture, linguistic pedagogy, theory and practice of translation.

Phraseology(from the Greek phrásis - expression and lógos - word, doctrine) - a section of linguistics that studies the semantic, morphological-syntactic and stylistic features of phraseological units in their modern state and historical development.

The main objectives of phraseology are:

Study of the sign nature of phraseological units of language;

Establishing the specifics of words and their meanings, implemented as part of phraseological units;

Determination of the syntactic roles of phraseological units and features of their functioning in speech;

Studying the formation of new meanings of words based on phraseological context;

Determination of the systematicity of phraseological composition and, in connection with this, a description of synonymy, antonymy, polysemy, homonymy and variability of phraseological units.

The most important problem of phraseology is the delimitation of phraseological units from combinations of words formed, and not reproduced, in speech, and the determination on this basis of the characteristics of a phraseological unit. The question of including in the scope of phraseology communicative units such as proverbs, sayings and combinations formed according to a standard model with a related meaning of words (such as fly into a rage evil takes).

Phraseology as an independent linguistic discipline arose in Russian linguistics in the 40-50s. XX century

Etymology(Greek etymología from étymon - truth and lógos - word, teaching) - a branch of linguistics that studies the origin of words and reconstructs the lexical system of the language of the most ancient (including preliterate) period.

Etymology as a scientific discipline originated in Ancient Greece, and in antiquity the purpose of etymological analysis was to search and determine the original, original, or “true” meanings of words. At the present stage of development of linguistics, the subject of etymology is to find out at what time, in what language, according to what word-formation model and with what meaning this or that word appeared, and then - to determine the phonetic and semantic changes that occurred with this word in the history of the language and thus predetermining its current appearance.

To clarify the origin of words and restore their history, etymology must take into account data from a number of scientific disciplines - both philological disciplines proper (comparative historical linguistics, dialectology, semasiology, onomastics) and other humanitarian and social disciplines (logic, history, archeology, ethnography).

Lexicography(from the Greek lexikós - related to the word and gráphō - I write) is a section of linguistics that deals with the theory and practice of compiling dictionaries and their study.

It is customary to distinguish between theoretical and practical lexicography. Item theoretical lexicography - the whole complex of problems associated with the development of the macrostructure (selection of vocabulary, volume and nature of the dictionary, principles of arrangement of material in the dictionary) and microstructure of the dictionary (structure of the dictionary entry, types of dictionary definitions and interpretations, the presence of different types of information about the word, types of linguistic and other illustrations, etc.). Practical Lexicography performs extremely important social functions, since it ensures the normalization of language, teaching languages ​​(both native and foreign), and makes interlingual communication possible.

Lexicography represents a word in the totality of all its properties, gives us an idea of ​​its semantic structure, the grammatical and stylistic features of individual lexical units, and therefore a dictionary turns out to be not only an indispensable language guide, but also an important tool for scientific research. Moreover, modern linguistics strives to embody in dictionary form various aspects of existing knowledge about language, so the object of description of lexicography becomes not only words, but also other linguistic units - morphemes, phraseological units, phrases, quotations.

Morphemics(from the Greek morphḗ - form) - a branch of linguistics that studies the structural features of morphemes, their relationships to each other and to the word as a whole, the morphemic structure of words and their forms.

Subject descriptive morphemics is to consider the following issues:

Phonological structure of different types of morphemes;

Various morphonological processes occurring at the junctions of morphemes, or morphemic seams;

Rules for combinability of morphemes with each other and restrictions imposed in the language on these combinations;

Conditions for varying morphemes in speech;

Semantic properties of morphemes;

Numerous types of relationships between roots and affixes - synonymous, homonymous, antonymous, etc.;

Defining criteria for the classification of morphemes and establishing different types of morphemes;

Systematization of words according to their morphemic composition, as well as the development of principles and procedures for morphemic analysis;

Study of the morphemic composition of various parts of speech, as well as different categories of words within a particular part of speech.

Descriptive morphemics are contrasted historical, which studies the features of the formation and development of the system of morphemes in the native language, the sources of the emergence of new morphemes in the language, methods of mastering borrowed morphemes and their interaction with native Russian morphemes.

Morphemics is equally closely related to both word formation and morphology. Previously, it was included in word-formation disciplines. But recently it has been distinguished as an independent branch of the science of language with a special object of study - the morpheme.

Word formation- a branch of linguistics that studies the ways and means of creating words, the rules and techniques of their production, the structure of derivatives and complex words - both formal and substantive.

Word formation solves the following problems:

Establishes and describes the basic patterns of derived (or motivated) words;

Offers their classifications;

Studies word-formation series and nests, word-formation (or derivation) processes, meanings and categories;

Defines the principles of the structure of the word-formation system as a whole.

The word-formation structure of derived words and the entire system of word-formation means of a particular language changes over time. Therefore, it is customary to distinguish between synchronous and diachronic word formation. Synchronous, or descriptive, word formation studies the motivational relationships between words coexisting in the same historical period of a given language, without taking into account the etymological situation. Diachronic, or historical, word formation studies the history of the emergence of individual words, the development and historical changes in their structure, changes in formal and semantic connections between related words.

The specificity of the subject of word formation in the structure of the language is determined by the characteristics of the derivational meanings themselves and the external means of their expression. This section of linguistics describes all the affixes presented in the words of the language, linking them with certain word-formation types - productive and unproductive. So, according to L.V. Shcherba, what is considered here is both “how words are made” (i.e., the structure of words already existing in the language), and “how words are made” (i.e., the potential possibilities of creating new words). The word-formation types themselves are studied from different angles: derivational affixes, grammatical and semantic characteristics of derived and generating words, morphonological phenomena at the junctions of morphemes in a motivated word are taken into account (alternating sounds, truncation of stems, superimposition of morphs on each other, changing the place of stress, etc.). etc.), stylistic characteristics and sphere of functioning of new words.

Morphology(from the Greek morphḗ - form and lógos - teaching) - a section of grammar, the main object of which is the grammatical properties of words and their significant parts (morphemes). Morphology, understood as the “grammatical study of the word” (V.V. Vinogradov), together with syntax, which is the “grammatical study of the sentence,” constitutes grammar.

Borders descriptive Morphologies are understood differently in different concepts. This may include:

The study of word structure (i.e. morphemics);

Information on word formation;

The study of inflection, various paradigms and inflectional types existing in language;

The study of grammatical meanings and the use of different grammatical forms and categories in texts (or grammatical semantics);

The doctrine of parts of speech;

Morphological typology.

Historical morphology deals

Description of changes occurring in the structure of the word

By studying changes in both the formal and content aspects of individual morphemes,

A study of the composition of grammatical categories and grammatical meanings in the history of language.

Syntax(from Greek sýntaxis - construction, order) - a section of linguistics that studies the processes of generation and the structure of coherent speech and includes two main parts: the doctrine of phrases and the doctrine of sentences. In a number of works, syntax, which studies the semantic side of speech, is contrasted with phonetics and morphology, which are mostly concerned with the expression of the language system

Item descriptive Syntax problems include the following:

Functioning in speech of various lexical and grammatical classes of words;

The compatibility and order of words when they are included in larger syntactic units;

Definition and consideration of different types of syntactic connections;

General properties and grammatical features of phrases and sentences;

Internal structure of syntactic units;

Classification of syntactic units of language;

Changes that a sentence undergoes when it is included in a larger unit of speech - into the text, i.e. rules for adapting a sentence to the context and to the speech situation;

Syntactic typology.

Historical syntax deals with the study of general patterns of development of individual syntactic units and changes affecting the entire syntactic structure of the language.

Punctuation(Middle Latin punctuatio from Latin punctum - point) - a branch of linguistics that deals with the study and description of the system of punctuation marks and the rules for their placement in written speech.

In the history of Russian punctuation, there are three main approaches to understanding its foundations and purpose - logical (or semantic), syntactic and intonation. Theorists logical directions were F.I. Buslaev, A.B. Shapiro and others, who proceeded from the position that for greater clarity in the presentation of thoughts in writing, it is customary to separate words and entire sentences with punctuation marks, i.e., stop signs. Syntactic the direction of the theory of Russian punctuation, which dates back primarily to the works of J.K. Grot, has become widespread in teaching practice. Its representatives proceed from the fact that punctuation marks are primarily intended to make the syntactic structure of speech clear, to highlight individual sentences and their parts. Representatives intonation theories (L.V. Shcherba, A.M. Peshkovsky, etc.) believe that punctuation marks are intended to indicate the rhythm and melody of a phrase, tempo of speech, pauses, etc., i.e. What intonation does in spoken speech, punctuation does in written speech.

Language- a naturally developing sign system that serves as the main means of communication between people.

Each linguistic sign (like any other sign of the semiotic system) has conceptual content (meaning) and formal expression (sound). Thus, on the one hand, language reflects a set of concepts and ideas about the world characteristic of a linguistic community, divides the surrounding reality and represents it through the means of language. In the system of meanings it expresses, a language records the experience of the entire collective, the “picture of the world” of the people speaking it. On the other hand, language is realized, materially embodied in spoken speech. With the advent of writing, language receives a new means of material expression - written texts. Only thanks to the presence of spoken speech and written texts can we get an idea of ​​the internal organization of language, of a linguistic system that is not given to us in direct observation.

Language is an organized, strictly ordered, multi-level system, all elements of which are interconnected and interdependent. Each level of linguistic structure is characterized by an independent linguistic unit that performs a special function in the language. Traditionally, linguistic units include phoneme, morpheme, word and sentence.

Language is a fairly stable system in which a change in a single linguistic unit inevitably entails a change in the entire language system as a whole. A rapid change in language would not allow it to perform a communicative function, to serve as a means of communication between people. However, in a language, its sound structure, lexical composition, even grammatical categories and syntactic structures are constantly changing. Sounds and words are the most sensitive to various changes; the grammar of a language is more stable; a significant change in it leads to a change in the language type. The sound and meaning of a word can change significantly over a short period of time. For example, the word fish, in addition to the main meaning, it can acquire new meanings, different shades, when used in a new, unusual context: when calling a person fish, we point to his emotional coldness, restraint, lethargy.

Possessing internal integrity and unity, language is at the same time a multifunctional system. The main function of language is to serve as a means of human communication; in addition, language is a socially significant form of reflection of the surrounding reality, as well as a means of obtaining new information about the world.

Language is a social phenomenon; it belongs to the whole society as a whole, and not to an individual. It is customary to distinguish several forms of the existence of language in society:

. idiolect- individual language of a particular person;

. dialect- many close idiolects that are characterized by internal unity and are united on the basis of territorial characteristics;

. language- this is, as a rule, many dialects that may differ from each other to one degree or another. The principle of combining different dialects into a single language depends not only on the linguistic (structural) parameters themselves, but also on social parameters (the linguistic self-awareness of speakers, the presence of a single written language, the social prestige of dialects, etc.).

The highest form of existence of a language is a literary language, which is characterized by the creation of norms and the presence of a fairly wide range of functional styles.

Literary language- one of the main forms of existence of a language, which is characterized by consistent codification (establishment of norms), conscious cultivation of norms, binding norms for all speakers and high social prestige.

Literary language serves various communicative spheres, serves to express a wide variety of contents and solve many communicative problems. Literary language is used in the fields of government, journalism, science, literature, as well as in oral speech and in some forms of colloquial speech. In a situation of casual communication, there are elements of a conversational style that do not violate the norms of the literary language.

Literary language is a bookish language, associated with literacy, with a special, bookish norm. It is based on an artificial norm and is opposed to a living spoken language. Every norm is associated with learning, it is taught, imposed on the individual by society. The assimilation of a norm demonstrates belonging to a particular society; it is a sign of society.

The structure of a literary language depends on the composition of the functional styles included in it (official business, church, scientific, newspaper journalistic, etc.). During the period of formation and strengthening of statehood, the need arises to form an official business style, and with the accumulation and development of scientific knowledge - a scientific style, etc. Special language tools are appearing that serve different communication areas. In order for all members of society to equally understand the language (for example, of official documents), linguistic means are consolidated and normalized. A strict, official version of the literary language emerges, serving the official business and scientific spheres.

The formation of a literary language is a national and historical phenomenon. The main processes of the formation of a literary language are associated with the development of culture and the history of society. The features of the formation of a national literary language depend on the sample texts that the literary language is guided by in its development.

For example, the functions of the Russian literary language were performed by the Church Slavonic language until the 18th century. After Peter's reforms, the Russian literary language began to move closer to folk colloquial speech. However, the centuries-old orientation towards Church Slavonic book and written culture determined many of the characteristic features of the Russian literary language.

Thus, a literary language is a standardized, bookish language, directly related to cultural tradition, designed to fit linguistic activity into the general plan of cultural, that is, socially valuable behavior.

Dialects(from the Greek diálektos - conversation, dialect, adverb) - varieties of the national language, opposed to the literary language, serving as a means of communication in speech groups identified on a geographical (territorial) basis. A territorial dialect is a means of communication among the population of a historically established region, characterized by specific ethnographic features.

Modern dialects are the result of centuries of development. Throughout history, due to changes in territorial associations, fragmentation, unification, and regrouping of dialects occur. Sometimes, on the border of two related languages, it is extremely difficult to determine whether local dialects belong to one language or another. The decisive factor here is ethnic: when assigning a dialect to a specific language, the self-awareness of the speakers of the dialect is taken into account.

Dialects are characterized by phonetic, lexical, and syntactic features that are revealed when comparing dialects with each other, as well as with the literary language. For example, a striking dialectal feature - tsokanie (two affricates [ts] and [ch'] of the literary language are not distinguished, pronounced as [ts]) - characterizes Arkhangelsk, Vologda, Pskov and some other dialects. Some dialects of the Oryol, Kursk, Tambov and Bryansk regions are characterized by the pronunciation [s] instead of the affricate [ts]: Kurisa laid the eggs on the street. Another teaser notes clinking glasses (the affricates [ts] and [ch’] are pronounced like [ch’]): A sheep ran past our porch.

Dialectal differences can be small, so that speakers of different dialects can easily understand each other, but they can also be quite significant.

Under the influence of the literary language, dialects lose their most significant differences from it, become unified, lose their independence, partially enriching the literary language with some of their own features.

Speech- a speaking process that occurs over time, carried out in audio or written form.

Speech is usually characterized by contrasting it with language (as the particular - the general). Speech is understood as a material embodiment, the use of a language system in the process of communication. Speech is concrete and unique, as opposed to abstract and reproducible language. Speech is subjective because it is a type of free creative activity of the individual. Speech always has an author who expresses his thoughts and emotions. Individual character is the most important feature of speech. Speech behavior is an essential characteristic of personality.

Speech is material, it consists of articulated signs perceived by the senses (hearing, vision). Oral speech is characterized by tempo, duration, timbre characteristics, volume level, articulatory clarity, accent, etc.

Speech is variable, allowing elements of the disordered and random. Speech can be characterized by indicating the psychological state of the speaker, his attitude towards the interlocutor, towards the subject of the message.

Speech is linear: it unfolds in time and is realized in space. Speech is contextually and situationally determined.

The result of speech is text. It represents one or more sentences related to each other, arranged in a certain sequence and united into a single whole by a common theme. Different semantic relationships are established between sentences in the text: opposition, explanation, purpose, condition. To connect sentences in a text, special syntactic means can be used: parallelism (several sentences have the same structure in terms of the order of sentence members), ellipsis (omission of a text element that can be restored in a given context), etc.

Speech as one of the forms of human activity is of interest not only to philologists, but also to philosophers, psychologists, speech therapists, sociologists, and specialists in communication and information theory. The role of speech in the formation of consciousness and manifestations of the subconscious is explored, the processes of development of children's speech, the mechanisms of speech formation, the occurrence of speech errors and various speech disorders are studied.

Thus, speech is the realization of language, which only through it can fulfill its main function - to serve as a means of communication between people.

Speech styles(from Latin stilus, stylus - pointed stick for writing, manner of writing) - systems of linguistic means within a literary language, delimited by the conditions and tasks of communication.

There are usually five styles of speech: four bookish - scientific, official business, journalistic and artistic - and a conversational style. Sometimes different styles of a literary language can differ significantly from each other, but in some languages ​​they turn out to be quite homogeneous: stylistic differences have not yet been developed and consolidated. The depth and certainty of stylistic differentiation depends on the “age” of the language.

Each style is characterized by certain linguistic means: special words, special combinations of words (formulas, cliches), forms of words, features of syntactic structures, etc. Speech styles are realized in certain forms, or types of texts, called speech genres.

Scientific style- one of the book styles that is used in scientific works, textbooks, oral presentations on scientific topics (lectures, reports at conferences, etc.). In addition, the scientific style can be used in popular science works, the purpose of which is to familiarize a wide audience with interesting scientific facts and theories.

The scientific style is used in an official setting and is characterized by logic, consistency, and objectivity. The purpose of the scientific style is to communicate information, explain a scientific theory, providing a system of evidence.

The scientific style is characterized by the indispensable use of appropriate scientific terminology. The term, unlike a word in common language, accurately and quite fully reflects a scientific concept. Scientific texts usually lack means of figurative and emotional presentation, exclamatory and interrogative sentences, hints, appeals, etc. If a rhetorical question is used in a scientific speech, then an immediate reaction from the audience is unlikely to be expected. As a rule, the author himself intends to answer this question in the course of further presentation of the material.

The scientific style is characterized by the use of complex syntactic constructions, participial and participial phrases. Frequent quotations and references to other scientific works are also a striking feature of the scientific style.

In scientific works, it is very important to structure the text, consistently present the theory, presenting all the necessary evidence, and draw a reasonable conclusion, therefore the texts use various pointers to the sequence of presentation and cause-and-effect relationships: firstly, therefore, so, let us now turn to... and so on.

In addition, special linguistic means used in scientific texts help to perceive the author’s scientific research as quite objective, removing a pronounced authorial element. For example, in scientific speech personal pronouns of the first and second persons are almost never used, but constructions without a subject (such as It is known that…). Impersonal constructions also create the effect of the author’s detachment and the opportunity to refer to previous research. The scientific style is characterized by the use of cliches, standard phrases that organize the course of scientific reasoning.

Formal business style- one of the book styles that serves the sphere of business relations. This style is typical for business papers: laws, documents, regulations, orders, protocols, etc.

The task of the official business style is to regulate business relations: convey information, orders, issue instructions, conclusions, etc. The official business style is characterized by accuracy, unambiguity, standardization and mandatory construction of the text according to the model. Often, when drawing up a document, such a sample is attached; sometimes special forms are prepared for writing official papers. Thus, the main feature of an official document is a standard form, thanks to which you can easily find the necessary information in the document: to whom the paper is addressed, from whom it is, from what date, what exactly is stated in the document.

In order for what is written to be accepted as an official document, it is necessary to follow strict rules for the design of the text, including a standard set of language tools. When drawing up a document, it is necessary to indicate the exact date, indicate the full last name, first name and patronymic (often also passport details) of the persons who appear in the official document.

For an official business style, it is typical to use standard phrases - clichés: please provide, after the deadline, in the prescribed manner and so on. Elements of conversational style, expressive and evaluative vocabulary, and familiar address are inappropriate in the document.

In the language of the document, personal pronouns of the 1st and 2nd persons are almost never used, which also makes the language of the document official, official. Business style does not allow the author to express his emotions or personal point of view on the issue. The syntax of the document is characterized by a large number of subordinate clauses, ponderous and confusing constructions, unnatural in colloquial speech.

Journalistic style- one of the book styles that is used in social and journalistic activities, in the media, in newspapers, and in public speaking situations.

The task of this style is to influence mass consciousness, the desire to impose one’s vision of the situation on the audience. Characteristic features of the journalistic style are imagery, emotionality, evaluativeness, appeal. In public speeches, various means of artistic expression are often used: epithets, hyperboles, comparisons, metaphors, “catchphrases.” Elements of language games, puns, appeals to the audience, appeals, interrogative and exclamatory sentences, and rhetorical questions are also used. In the speaker’s speech, which is always emotionally charged and intense, a personal assessment of the situation is heard, therefore the first person pronouns of both numbers are often used as linguistic means.

Thus, in the journalistic style, linguistic means are used that allow one to influence the emotional state of the audience and form the listener’s attitude to individual events and to the world as a whole.

Art style - functional style of speech, which is used in works of fiction and belongs to book styles.

The task of this style is to draw an artistic image, express the author’s attitude towards what is depicted, and influence the feelings and imagination of the reader. Language here performs not so much a communicative as an aesthetic function; it forms a special figurative world using special expressive means. These include trails(metaphors, metonymies, epithets, hyperboles, litotes, comparisons, etc.) and figures of speech(anaphora, gradation, inversion, rhetorical question, parallelism, etc.).

For example, metaphor is a means of artistic expression, in which the name of one object is used to name another on the basis of similarity : The garden is on fire fire of red rowan (S.A. Yesenin). Or litotes is a figurative expression consisting of downplaying the size of an object or the significance of the depicted phenomenon: Your Spitz, lovely Spitz, no more thimble (A.S. Griboyedov), etc.

A poetic work uses means of rhythmic organization of text - rhythm and rhyme.

The storm covers the sky with darkness,

Whirling snow whirlwinds

Then, like a beast, she will howl,

She will cry like a child.

Then on the dilapidated roof

Suddenly the straw will rustle,

The way a belated traveler

There will be a knock on our window(A.S. Pushkin).

In the language of fiction, in addition to the artistic style, elements of other styles, mainly colloquial, can be used. The use of colloquial speech does not violate the norms of the literary language (unlike colloquial speech, which is outside the literary norm). In a work of art, colloquial speech is “literalised”; elements of colloquial style - expressive, expressive - against the background of neutral and bookish means of literary language are marked as elements of reduced stylistic coloring. In the speech of the characters, clericalisms, occasionalisms, dialect words and even profanity are possible. The purpose of this deliberate violation of the norms of literary language is mainly the speech characteristics of the characters.

Conversational style-functional style of speech, which is opposed to book styles and is used in a situation of casual conversation, more often in an informal setting. The main form of existence is oral, but the conversational style can also be implemented in written form (notes, private letters, recording the speech of characters, etc.).

Conversational style characterizes the ordinary, relaxed oral speech of people who speak a literary language. The task of colloquial speech is communication, exchange of news, opinions and impressions of loved ones in an informal setting.

The general properties of conversational style are manifested in the specific characteristics of colloquial speech: informality, unpreparedness, spontaneity, linear character, leading to both economy and redundancy of speech means. With an accelerated rate of speech, phenomena of increased reduction of unstressed vowels and simplification of consonant groups are observed.

Speech uses colloquial and colloquial vocabulary, expressive and evaluative vocabulary, first-person pronouns, particles, interjections and addresses. The speaker strives to express his personal opinion, to make speech figurative and lively.

Participial and adverbial phrases and complex syntactic constructions are rarely found in colloquial speech. The technique of dismembering the syntactic whole is often observed; interrupted structures, repetitions, contractions, and non-union composition are used. Conversational style is characterized by a free word order, which is associated with the possibility of logical selection of words by intonation.

Conversational style differs sharply from book style in the rules for the arrangement of words and parts of sentences. Words of one phrase in colloquial speech can be separated by other words: Need it today of bread buy fresh . It happens that the members of the main and subordinate clauses are intertwined with each other: You doctor saw, when did you arrive? and so on.

Genres of speech- a set of texts united by the same use of stylistic means of language. A group of speech genres is combined into a specific functional style.

The scientific style has the following speech genres: article, monograph, textbook, abstract, abstract, review, lecture, scientific report, etc.

Speech genres of official business style include: law, resolution, interrogation protocol, certificate, statement, order, etc.

The journalistic style distinguishes such speech genres as articles, interviews, sketches, reports, etc.

Genres of artistic style are novel, short story, poem, poem, etc.

Speech genres of colloquial speech include story, dialogue, family conversation, etc.

© All rights reserved

BRIEF DICTIONARY OF LINGUISTIC TERMS

M.: Russian language, 1995. 176 p.

Er.KHAN-PIRA

The dictionary is addressed primarily to undergraduate and graduate students of philology, as well as teachers of pedagogical colleges teaching classes in the propaedeutic course “Fundamentals of Linguistics.” A dictionary will help a language teacher working in a secondary school to better understand the terms used by the authors of articles in the magazines “Russian Language at School”, “Russian Speech”, and in the newspaper “Russian Language”.
The dictionary contains about 1500 terms. By its type it belongs to explanatory terminological dictionaries. Another type of terminological dictionary is encyclopedic. In domestic linguistic literature it is represented, for example, by the encyclopedia “Russian Language” (1st ed. – 1979, 2nd – 1997) and “Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary” (1990). The “Dictionary-Reference Book of Linguistic Terms”, which went through three editions, D.E. Rosenthal and M.A. Telenkova (3rd ed. – 1985) is a mixed type of explanatory and encyclopedic terminological dictionary.
How does an explanatory terminological dictionary differ from an encyclopedic dictionary? The first one only interprets the term, i.e. reveals the content of the scientific concept contained in the term as a lexical meaning. The second, having given an interpretation, goes deeper into the consideration of the object of naming itself. For example: " Antonyms. Words that are opposed according to the most general and essential semantic feature for their meaning and are located at the extreme points of the corresponding lexical-semantic paradigm.

Diligent - lazy, talk - remain silent, truth - lies, hot - cold"(A brief dictionary of linguistic terms).

“ANTONYMS. 1. Words that have a qualitative attribute in their meaning and therefore can be opposed to each other as opposite in meaning. Yo Russian. good - bad, close - distant, good - evil, getting poor - getting richer.

2. Words opposed to each other as correlative (Russian. brother - sister), as denoting an oppositely directed action (Russian. walk – come) and so on." ( O.S. Akhmanova. Dictionary of linguistic terms. M., 1966).

And here is the article “Antonyms” in LES: “...words of the same part of speech that have opposite meanings. Depending on the type of opposition expressed (see Antonyms) A. are divided into respectively. classes, the main ones of which (hereinafter we talk about three classes of antonyms. - E.H.) <...>According to their structure, A. are divided into different roots<...>and cognates<...>. A special, unproductive variety of A. is formed by words that combine opposite meanings<...>.
There is a narrower understanding of A., for example, as only qualitative and only words of different roots, but this understanding of antonymy does not fully take into account all the possibilities for expressing opposites in language.”
In addition, linguistic encyclopedias contain personalities - articles dedicated to famous linguists and/or articles about various directions (schools) in linguistics.
Work on any dictionary begins with compiling a vocabulary - selected vocables (heading words) for presentation in the dictionary. The authors of the dictionary about which I am writing sought to select terms of modern linguistics, in particular, to present in the dictionary terms of linguistic disciplines that were not included in existing dictionaries of linguistic terms (for example, terms of contrastive linguistics).
The dictionary does not include the names of languages ​​and language families, linguistic schools and trends, terms of poetics, rhetoric, stylistics, and names of special linguistic disciplines.
The dictionary is accompanied by an annotated list of the main terminological reference books on linguistics published in Russian, as well as a dictionary of Greek-Latin elements in linguistic terminology. Many dictionary entries have a comment area marked with a dark circle ·. True, sometimes this is not a comment in the exact sense of the word, but an illustration: for example, in the article “Archaisms” in the comment area: “Lexical archaisms: neck –'neck', in vain– ‘in vain’, this- 'this'. Semantic archaism – stomach in meaning 'life'".
The dictionary closes the gap left by the departure of the last edition of the dictionary by D.E. from bookstores. Rosenthal and M.A. Telenkova – accessible in content and price to a high school teacher.

Here are some of the entries that appear in the peer-reviewed dictionary, which was last published 13 years ago: “ Discourse. A speech work considered in the fullness of its expression (verbal-intonation and paralinguistic, see Paralinguistics) and aspirations, taking into account all extra-linguistic facts (social, cultural, psychological), essential for successful verbal interaction"; " Diglossia. The presence in society of two communicative means that are in a complementary relationship to each other (i.e. distributed between different communicative spheres) and assessed by speakers on a scale of “high - low”, “solemn - ordinary”.

« Emic. Representing a linguistic entity belonging to a level invariants(cm. Levels). Wed. Ethical. Emic units.
· The term “E.” derived from the term “phonemic” and extends not only to units of sound structure, but also to more complex units of language.
Emic units include all units whose names include term element -ema (phoneme, toneme, morpheme and etc.)"; " Ethical. Representing a linguistic entity belonging to the variable level (see. Levels) <...>. Ethical units. · The term “E.” derived from the term “phonetic” and extends not only to sound units, but also to more complex units. Ethical units in phonology include sounds, and in morphology - morphs.”

I will make a few comments on what seems to me controversial or inaccurate in the dictionary.
In the article Dialectal language we read: “A conditional concept denoting form of existence language<...>" First, what does “conventional concept” mean? In logic, nothing seems to be known about him. And how can a concept, being a form of thought, “mean” anything? Indicates a word. The concept does not have a naming (nominative) function. It reflects the characteristics of an object or class of objects.
In the article Paronymy The following definition of this linguistic phenomenon is given: “Partial sound similarity of words (paronyms) with their complete or partial semantic difference.” And in the article Paronyms it is said that “these are words that have morphological and phonetic similarities, but differ in meaning.” In my opinion, these two definitions do not agree with each other: a phenomenon is understood more broadly than its manifestation, its incarnation. And what does “morphological similarity” mean? Paronymy And paronyms– ambiguous terms. Perhaps, as was the case in other cases (for example, in articles Protolanguage, Declension, Syntagmatics), one should go to show ambiguity. Indeed, with one understanding of these terms excavator And escalator, irrigator And alligator not paronyms, but paronomases, and in other cases - paronyms.
The definition of terms seems unclear pleonasm And tautology, which is why their difference is unclear. An attempt to point out their differences, made in the comment area of ​​the article Tautology(“Unlike pleonasm, tautology is always a property of speech ( uzusa), it is not part of the system and norm of language"), does not save, in my opinion, the situation, since pleonasm is also a phenomenon of speech, not language: in the article Pleonasm we find: “Redundancy of expressive means used to convey the lexical and grammatical meaning of the statement. As a property text P. opposed ellipsis». Statement– synonym text. And here usus– hardly a synonym for the terms speech, utterance, text, speech work contrary to what the article states Tautology.

Term defined as follows: “A word or phrase denoting the concept of a special field of knowledge or activity.” If we proceed from the two-sidedness of the word as a sign, then this understanding of the term seems more accurate: a word or a stable phrase, the lexical meaning of which is a scientific (theoretical) concept or the concept of a special field of activity. This, by the way, will allow you to distinguish a scientific term from terms, for example, gymnastics, plumbing or ice dancing.

Terminology interpreted as “the transition of a commonly used word into a term.” And it was added: “The basis of terminology is metaphor.” Obtaining a commonly used terminological meaning does not mean its departure from the language in its direct meaning (cf. insignificant as an ordinary word and as a legal term – ‘not having legal force, void’). And here determinization: “the transition of a term into a commonly used word, accompanied by the loss of connection with a special (scientific) concept and the acquisition of a new meaning, usually metaphorical.”
But is it really epicenter ceased to be a geological term due to the fact that it acquired a colloquial metaphorical meaning? In the article Denotation (extensional) it is said that this is “the content of a sign indicating its subject relevance, i.e. a set of objects of reality that can be called a given linguistic unit (cf. Referent). Opposite Significate». Significate is defined as follows: “Conceptual content tongue sign, contrasting it with other signs and presented as a set seven" A sema (semantic factor)- This is “the minimum component of the meaning of a word. A seme in the sphere of grammatical meaning is called grammeme" According to the dictionary, it turns out that the denotation is inside the linguistic sign, and not outside it. And then the question arises: how to divide the content side of a verbal sign, significat, denotation, as well as denotative meaning (of the term existing in linguistics denotative meaning not in the dictionary)? As is known, the term denotation ambiguous. In the work of academician Yu.D. Apresyan “Lexical Semantics” we find: “The denotation of a sign is the class of facts it denotes, and the signification is the general characteristics of all types of this class. Thus, it is possible to have a denotative identity of signs with their significative difference. A classic example of this discrepancy is the phrases triangle center of gravity And median intersection point: these names actually define the same object of reality, but allow us to think about it in different ways” (Selected Works, Part I. M., 1995. P. 60). In the already mentioned dictionary D.E. Rosenthal and M.A. Calf denotation is “an object or phenomenon of the reality around us, with which a given linguistic unit correlates.” In the “Logical Dictionary-Reference Book” by N.I. Kondakova (M., 1975) denotation is “a thing in the broadest sense, as something that can be named and designated by a name (A. Church)... In other words, denotation is the subject of a name... But such a case is also possible , when this or that expression has meaning, but does not have a denotation (cf. king of france in the 20th century, goblin, centaur, witch.– E.H.)... Sometimes terms denotation, designation And referent identify” (p. 139).

The LES speaks about the denotation - “designated object”, then it is written that the term denotation used in four meanings: 1) the same as referent(an object of extra-linguistic reality that the speaker has in mind when pronouncing a given speech segment);
2) “a set of objects of reality (things, properties, relationships, situations, states, processes, actions, etc.) that can be called a given unit (due to its linguistic meaning); Usually we are talking about the lexical denotation. units"; 3) “an extensional element (i.e. a set of objects that can be called a given linguistic unit).” With this understanding, every element of an extension is considered a denotation, regardless of which of them is related to. specific speech segment. For example, it is said that both Suvorov and Menshikov are among the denotations of the word generalissimo. The extensional in this case qualifies as a “class of denotations”; 4) “the same as denotative meaning– conceptual core of meaning, i.e. ...a component of meaning abstracted from stylistic, pragmatic, modal, emotional, subjective, communicative, etc. shades. The use of the term is quite common and does not distinguish between D. and the referent...”

As you can see, for the “Concise Dictionary...” denotation= term denotative meaning. I believe that the authors of the dictionary should have given at least one more meaning of the term denotation and clarify the relationship of this term (in their understanding) with the term significat. According to the dictionary jargon– “a speech variety, the main function of which is to express membership in a relatively autonomous social group through the use of specific words, forms and phrases”; slang- "1. a variety of the national language, the speech of the urban lower classes (in its most vivid form inherent in the English language)... 2. The same as jargon»; argot- "1. A sociolect of a separate group, characterized by arbitrarily selected, often modified elements of one or more natural languages ​​(lexical and word-formative, less often grammatical). Argo is created for the purpose of closed communication within a given group, isolating this group from the rest of society and hiding the subject of communication (secret language)... Argo of the ofenes, beggars, sherstobits, shapovals. Thieves' argot. 2. Same as jargon»; sociolect(social dialect) - “a set of linguistic features characteristic of the speech of a certain social group (professional, age, class, etc.) within the framework of one or another form of language existence.”

Firstly, it is noteworthy that only argot is defined through a generic, apparently, term sociolect, A slang And jargon- No. But a term that has only one subordinate term cannot be generic: to establish a generic-specific relationship, at least the presence of two subordinate terms is necessary. Secondly, what does “speech variety” mean when it comes to understanding jargon? Of course, jargon is reproduced in speech, but, in my opinion, it is an autonomous lexical-semantic system as part of one of the forms of existence of language (vernacular or literary language in its colloquial style). In other words, jargon is a linguistic phenomenon.
Thirdly, when interpreting the first meaning of the term slang it is inaccurately said about “a variety of a national language”: in order to have the status of a variety, one must have its own, unborrowed levels of the language, and slang has only one of its own - lexical-semantic. And then, not very neatly formulated: “a variety... language, speech urban lower classes." Fourthly, the interpretation of the meaning of a specific term through a generic one must pass the test of substitution (substitution) instead of the generic term of its interpretation. Try replacing the term sociolect its interpretation in the text of the article Argo. You will immediately be drawn to edit it. By the way, it seems to me that, unlike all the argot, jargon, and slangs that arose and arise spontaneously, the argot of the Ofenians had a very strong conscious beginning, bringing it closer in this regard to the so-called artificial languages.

Functional styles are understood by the dictionary as “variants of a literary language, determined by various socially significant areas of communication. Each functional style is represented by a set speech genres" And behind the sign · it is added: “In the modern Russian literary language, the following functional styles are traditionally distinguished: everyday literary, official business, journalistic (newspaper-political), scientific and production-technical.” It seems to me that for the purity of the genre of the explanatory dictionary, it would be more accurate to place the mention of the manifestation, manifestation of functional styles in the comment area.
Hardly a term everyday literary style traditional. Much more traditional colloquial. In addition, since all functional styles are styles of the literary language, the term element is unnecessary literary. The understanding of journalistic style as newspaper-political seems narrow. It manifests itself not only in newspaper but also in magazine speech, as well as in radio television and oratory. And thematically it is not closed by its use in a political text.
The term speech genre, according to the dictionary, means “a set of speech works (texts or statements) united by the same use of stylistic means of language.” A group of speech genres is integrated into a specific functional style.

Firstly, the terms were not highlighted, as is customary in the dictionary statement And text, interpreted in their alphabetical place.
Secondly, it would be more accurate to write “united by the use of identical stylistic means of language.”
Thirdly, a set of speech works cannot be integrated into a functional style if the latter is a fact of language (and the dictionary recognizes it as such): speech is not part of the language, these are close, non-existent without each other, but still different phenomena.
In relation to literary speech, I would define the term this way: speech genre: a type of speech work characterized by a specific communicative goal and the use of certain means of a particular functional style. MM. Bakhtin wrote: “Even in the freest and most relaxed conversation, we cast our speech according to certain genre forms... These speech genres are given to us almost in the same way as we are given our native language” (Aesthetics of verbal creativity. M., 1979. P. 257 ).
In the comment area of ​​the article Speech genre functional styles and some speech genres in which these styles are used are listed. For some reason, among the styles there is no production and technical one mentioned in the comment area of ​​the article Functional styles. It seems to me that here, too, there is no clarity in the distinction between language and speech: “the scientific style has the following speech genres...”, “the speech genres of the official business style include...” and, finally, “the following speech genres are distinguished in the journalistic style ...". Genres speeches in the understanding accepted by the dictionary, fell into language. In the article Ablaut not a word about internal inflection. There are also a number of inaccuracies and direct oversights (for example, in the article Speech there is a link to the article Code, but it’s not in the dictionary, the opposite is in the article Antonyms: links to the article Paradigm no, but it’s in the dictionary).

With all the shortcomings and with all the sometimes lax metalanguage of the dictionary, it will still be useful to students of philological faculties and literature teachers. It remains to be hoped that the authors will have the opportunity to prepare its 2nd, revised and expanded edition.

Abbreviation at ra- (Italian abbreviatura from Latin brevis - short). A compound abbreviated word formed from initial letters, sounds or other nasal elements of a phrase.

Paragraph A ts- (German absetzen - move away). 1) Red line. 2) A section of written or printed text from one red line to another.

Abstr A ktnaya (l e Xika)- (lat. abstractus - remote, abstract). A set of words with an abstract meaning of quality, property, state.

Act And vny (dictionary)- (Latin activus - effective). Words that a speaker of a given language not only understands, but also uses (contrasted with a passive dictionary).

Akts e nt- (lat. accentus - emphasis). Emphasis.

Alleg O Riya- (Greek allegoria - allegory). A trope consisting of an allegorical depiction of an abstract concept using a concrete, life-like image.

Anal O Gia- (Greek analogia - correspondence). Assimilation caused by the influence of some elements of language on other elements associated with them.

Antit e behind- (Greek antithesis - opposition). A stylistic figure that serves to enhance the expressiveness of speech by sharply contrasting concepts, thoughts, and images.

Ant O him- (Greek anti - against + oniva - name). Words with opposite meanings.

Arg O - (French argot - jargon). The language of individual social groups, artificially created for the purpose of linguistic isolation.

Argum e nt- (lat. argumentum). A logical argument that serves as the basis of evidence.

Arha And zm– outdated words and expressions.

Barbarian And zm- (Greek barbarismos). Foreign word or expression.

Verb A linen (products)- (lat. verbum - verb). Verbal, linguistic means of communication as opposed to non-verbal, non-linguistic, non-verbal.

Vulgar And snakes- (lat. vulgaris - common people, rude). Rude words and expressions that are outside the norms of literary language.

Hyp e rbola- (Greek hyperbole - exaggeration). A figurative expression containing an exaggeration of the properties, signs, qualities of an object or phenomenon.

Hyp O thesis- (Greek . hipothesis - basis, assumption). A scientific hypothesis put forward to explain a phenomenon and requiring experimental verification and theoretical justification in order to become a reliable scientific theory.

Gloss A riy- (lat. glossarium - gloss dictionary). An explanatory dictionary of outdated and rarely used words for any text, mainly ancient.

G O thief- a variety of a national language used in a limited area (see “dialect”, “adverb”).

hail A tion- (Latin gradatio - gradual increase). - A stylistic figure consisting of such an arrangement of parts of a statement (words, sentence segments), in which each subsequent one contains an increasing (less often decreasing) semantic or emotional-expressive meaning, due to which an increase (weakening) of the impression they make is created.

Gram A teak- (Greek gramma - written sign). 1) A branch of linguistics that studies forms of inflection, the structure of words, phrases and sentences. 2) The grammatical structure of the language. 3) A set of rules for inflection, their combination into phrases and sentences.

· Deduct And explicit (method)- (Latin deductio - removal). A method of proof consisting in moving from the general to the particular (opposed to induction).

· Def e ktnye (verbs)- (lat. defectus - flaw, deficiency, shortcoming). Verbs with incomplete conjugation, i.e. not having separate personal forms for phonetic or semantic reasons.

· Def And With- (Latin divisio - division). A connecting line between parts of a compound word when written semi-continuously or between words that are in the relationship of the word being defined and the appendix to it, etc.

Dial e ct, dialect And snakes- (Greek dialektos - dialect, adverb). A variety of a national language used by a relatively limited number of people connected by territorial, social, and professional communities. Words from various dialects.

Dial O G- (Greek dialogos - conversation). A form of speech in which there is a direct exchange of statements between two or more persons.

Zharg O n– the language of certain social groups.

Idiom And logical (expression)- (Greek idioma - a peculiar expression). The same as a phraseological unit, phraseological unit.

Inv e Russia- (Latin inversio - rearrangement, turning over). Changing the usual word order.

Induct And explicit (method)- (Latin inductio - removal). A method of proof consisting in moving from the particular to the general.

Interact And private (function)- (Latin inter - between, inside + actio - action). A communication function that ensures the organization of human interaction.

Inton A tion- (lat. intonare - pronounce loudly). Rhythmic and melodic side of speech.

Ir O nia- (Greek eironeia - mockery). A trope consisting of using a word in the opposite sense.

Histor And zm- words characteristic of a certain time.

Kinet And logical (speech)- (Greek kinetikos - related to movement). Nonverbal means of communication in the form of expressive movements of various parts of the human body (facial expressions, gaze, posture, gait, gestures).

Kn And zhnaya (l e Xika)- words and expressions associated with bookish styles of speech and used in scientific literature, journalism, and official business documents.

Communicate And vnaya (f at function)- (lat. communicatio - message, communication). The function of communication is to transmit information.

Comte A ctnoe (communication)- (lat. contactus - contact). Communication between communicants located in close proximity to each other.

· Comte e kst- (Latin contextus - close connection, connection). A semantically complete segment of text that makes it possible to accurately establish the meaning of an individual word or sentence included in it.

Cult at ra p e chi– 1) A branch of philology that studies the speech life of society in a certain era. 2) The qualities of literate speech that make it exemplary in a given historical period in a given language community.

L e Xika- (Greek lexikos - verbal, dictionary). 1) Vocabulary composition of the language 2) A set of words related to the scope of their use

(bookish, scientific, professional, exotic, outdated, etc.). 3) A set of words associated with their origin (original Russian, international, borrowed, etc.). 4) One of the stylistic layers in the vocabulary of the language (neutral, sublime, poetic, etc.).

Linguistics- (Latin lingva - language). The science of language.

Literary language- a normalized language that serves the diverse cultural needs of the people.

Litotes- (Greek litotes - simplicity, thinness). Trope, understatement.

Logical stress- highlighting one of the words of a sentence in the pronunciation to enhance its semantic load.

Metaphor- (Greek metaphora - transfer). Trope, hidden comparison, figurative designation based on similarity.

Metonymy- (Greek metonymia - renaming). Trope, a figurative designation based on a material connection between objects.

Multi-Union- a syntactic figure consisting of a deliberate increase in the number of conjunctions in a sentence, usually to connect homogeneous members, thereby emphasizing the role of each of them, creating unity of enumeration, and enhancing the expressiveness of speech.

Monologue- (Greek monos - one + logos - word). Speech belonging to one person.

Morpheme- (Greek morphe - form). A significant part of a word, further indivisible.

Morphology- grammatical teaching about the word, including the teaching about the structure of the word, forms of inflection, ways of expressing grammatical meanings, as well as the teaching about parts of speech and their inherent methods of word formation.

Neutral vocabulary- words that are not attached to a specific style of speech, having stylistic synonyms (book, colloquial, colloquial), against the background of which they are devoid of stylistic coloring.

Neologism– new words and expressions.

Norm- (lat. norma). A single exemplary common use of language elements in a given era by given speakers

Personification- the simplest type of metaphor, the animation of inanimate objects.

Homonyms- (Greek homos - identical + onyma - name). Words that sound the same but have different meanings.

Onomastics- (Greek onomastikos - related to a name) A branch of lexicology that studies proper names.

Speaker- (Latin orare - to speak). One who makes speeches and has the gift of eloquence.

· Spelling A mma- (Greek orthos - correct, direct + gramma - recording). Writing that conforms to spelling rules and requires the application of those rules.

Spelling A fiya- a system of rules for spelling words and their significant parts, continuous, hyphenated and separate spellings, the use of uppercase and lowercase letters, and the transfer of words from one line to another.

Orfo uh Piya- (Greek epos - speech). A branch of linguistics that studies the norms of literary pronunciation.

Parallel And zm- (Greek parallelos - walking nearby). A syntactic figure, a comparison of different pictures (most often of nature and the human soul) in similar syntactic constructions.

Parafre A z (paragraph A behind)- (Greek paraphrasis - descriptive phrase, description). An expression that is a descriptive representation of the meaning of another expression or word.

P A bond- (Greek pausis - cessation). A temporary stop in sound that breaks the flow of speech, caused by various reasons and performing various functions.

Personific A tion- (Latin persona - face + facio - I do). A technique for transferring human characteristics and properties onto inanimate objects and abstract concepts.

Peripheral A z (peripheral A behind)- the same as paraphrase, paraphrase.

Pleon A zm- (Greek pleonasmos - excess). Verbosity, an expression containing unambiguous and thereby unnecessary words.

Predic A T- (lat. praedicatum - expressed). 1) A logical predicate is what is expressed in a judgment about its subject. 2) Same as grammatical predicate.

Space e whose- words, expressions, forms of word formation and inflection, features of pronunciation that are not included in the norm of literary speech.

Straight O th time I word doc- the most common arrangement of correlative members of the sentence for this type of sentence.

Item A tion- (lat. punctum - point). A collection of punctuation rules.

· Conversation O rnaya l e Xika- words used in casual conversation.

Rit O Rick- (Greek rhetorike - the art of eloquence). Theory of expressive speech, eloquence, oratory.

Rhetorician And logical question O With- an interrogative sentence containing an affirmation or negation to which no answer is expected.

Rhetorician And logical appeal e tion- a stylistic figure, consisting in the fact that the statement is addressed to an inanimate object, an abstract concept, an absent person, and thereby enhances expressiveness.

Sam A ntika -(Greek semantikos - meaning). The semantic side, the meaning of individual linguistic units: morphemes, words, phrases, as well as grammatical forms.

Synecdoche- (Greek synekdoche - co-impliation). A type of metonymy, the transfer of meaning from one phenomenon to another based on the quantitative relationship between them.

Synonym- (Greek synonymos - same name). Words that are close or identical in meaning, but differ in shades of meaning or stylistic coloring.

Syntax- (Greek syntaxis - composition). A section of grammar that studies the structure of coherent speech and includes two main parts: the study of phrases and the study of sentences.

Situation- (French situation - position, situation). The circumstances in which the act of speech is performed.

Comparison- a trope consisting of likening one object to another based on a common feature.

Stylistics- (Greek stylos - writing rod). A branch of linguistics that studies various styles.

Suffix- (lat. suffixus - nailed, nailed down). A service morpheme, located after the root and used to form new words or their non-syntactic forms.

Tautology- (Greek tauto - the same + logos-word). Identity, repetition of what was said in other words.

Thesis- (Greek thesis). A statement whose truth must be proven.

Text- (Latin textum - connection, connection). A work of speech (statement) reproduced in writing or in print.

Subject- with the actual division of a sentence, that part of it that contains something known, familiar and serves as the starting point (basis) for conveying something new.

Term- (Latin terminus - limit, border, boundary sign). A word or phrase that accurately denotes a concept used in science, technology, or art.

Toponymy, toponymy - (Greek topos - place + onoma, onyma - name). A branch of onomastics that studies geographical names and toponyms.

Trope- (Greek tropos - turn). A figure of speech in which a word or expression is used figuratively for the purpose of greater artistic expressiveness.

Keep silent A tion- a turn of phrase that consists in the fact that the author does not fully express his thought, giving the reader (listener) the opportunity to guess for himself what exactly remains unspoken.

Mouth O yummy combination- the same as a phraseological unit, phraseological unit.

Philol O Gia- (Greek phileo - love + logos - teaching). A set of sciences that study the culture of a people, expressed in language and literary creativity.

F O rmy r e chi- varieties of speech that differ in external means of expression (oral and written forms of speech).

Fr A behind- (Greek phrasis - turnover, expression). The smallest independent unit of speech, acting as a unit of communication (in this meaning it coincides with the term “sentence”).

Phraseologist And unified And tsa, phraseologist And zm, phraseologist And chemical equipment O T- a lexically indivisible, stable in its composition and structure, complete in meaning, phrase, reproduced in the form of a ready-made speech unit.

Function A linen steel And whether- styles identified in accordance with the main functions of language associated with a particular field of human activity.

E lipsis- (Greek ellipsis - prolapse, omission). Omission of an element of an utterance that is easily reconstructed in a given context or situation.

Elyat And in (elative)- (lat. elatus - raised, sublime) Homonymous with the superlative degree of the adjective, denoting an unrelated degree of quality.

Ep And tet- (Greek epitheton - application). Artistic, figurative definition, type of trope.

Ep And head start- (Greek epi - after + phoros - bearing). A stylistic figure opposite to anaphora, consisting in the repetition of the same elements at the end of each parallel series (verse, stanza, sentence, etc.).

Etymol O gia -(Greek etymon - truth). 1) A branch of linguistics that studies the origin and history of individual words and morphemes. 2) Origin and history of individual words and morphemes.

Language- a system of phonetic, lexical and grammatical means, which is a tool for expressing thoughts, feelings, expressions of will and serves as the most important means of communication between people.