Famous orators of ancient Rome. Ancient Greek rhetoric Orators of ancient Greece briefly

MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION

FEDERAL STATE EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION

HIGHER PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION

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AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY"

Creative work

"Famous Orators of Ancient Greece"

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Checked by: teacher

Orenburg 2010

Introduction………………………………………………………………3

1. The birthplace of oratory………………………………………………………..4
2. Famous orators of ancient Greece…………………………………..5

Conclusion……………………………………………………………………..12

List of used literature……………………………………………………13

Introduction

“The Word is a great ruler who, possessing a very small and completely invisible body, does the most wonderful things. For it can instill fear, and destroy sadness, and instill joy, and awaken compassion,” one of the most ancient philosophers and educators, Gorgias, very aptly and figuratively noted. However, the word is not only the most important means of influencing others. It gives us the opportunity to understand the world, to subjugate the forces of nature. The word is a powerful means of self-expression, this urgent need of each of the people. But how to use it? How can you learn to speak in such a way as to interest your listeners, influence their decisions and actions, and win them over to your side? Which speech can be considered the most effective?

The answer to these and other questions related to the ability to speak is given by rhetoric (from the Greek art of eloquence) - the science of the skill of “persuading, captivating and delighting” with speech (Cicero).

Who is this speaker? 1) a person professionally engaged in the art of eloquence; 2) the person making the speech; 3) a herald of something; 4) a person with the gift of speech.

There is probably no need to convince you that every schoolchild or student who prepares messages for lessons or club activities, speaks at school and class meetings, at ceremonial acts, etc. has to speak publicly. You have probably had to either worry about your unsuccessful performances, or get bored listening to your comrades speaking. But at the same time, of course, everyone can remember a bright, interesting, captivating speech by a lecturer, or a favorite teacher, or one of their peers.

In order to be an excellent rhetorician, you need to know the history of rhetoric, where it began, how it developed, and how ancient orators evaluated the word. This is the relevance of this topic.

The birthplace of oratory

Ancient Greece is considered the birthplace of eloquence, although oratory was known in Egypt, Babylon, Assyria, and India. In antiquity, the living word was very important: owning it was the most important way to achieve authority in society and success in political activity. The ancient Greeks highly valued the “gift of orbit.” They listened with reverence to the “sweet-tongued” Pylos king Nestor and admired Odysseus: “Speeches flowed from his lips like a snow blizzard.”

For a long time, oratory existed only in oral form. Samples of speeches, even the best ones, were not recorded. Only the sophists, “teachers of wisdom,” in the second half of the 5th century. BC e. introduced written recording of speeches. Sophists traveled to cities and, for a fee, taught the art of arguing and “making the weakest argument the strongest.” They considered it their task to teach students to “speak well and convincingly” on issues of politics and morality, for which they forced them to memorize entire speeches as role models. The main place in sophistry was occupied by the theory of persuasion. The term “sophism” was generated by the methods of evidence used by the sophists; It is still used today to define a position, evidence that is correct in form but false in essence. In parallel with practical eloquence, the sophists began to develop the theory of oratory - rhetoric. Tradition associates the opening of the first rhetorical schools and the creation of the first textbooks on rhetoric with the names of the sophists Coracus and his student Tisias from Syracuse (5th century BC).

Famous orators of Ancient Greece

Gorgias

The sophist Gorgias of Leontina (485-380 BC) received recognition and contributed to the theory of eloquence. Gorgias was one of the first orators of a new type - not only a practitioner, but also a theorist of eloquence, who taught young men from wealthy families to speak and think logically for a fee. Such teachers were called sophists, “experts in wisdom.” Gorgias paid main attention to issues of style. To enhance the psychological impact of speech, he used stylistic means of decoration known as “Gorgian figures.” Among them are such as antithesis(a sharply expressed opposition of concepts), oxymoron(a combination of opposite concepts), division of sentences into symmetrical parts, rhyming endings, alliteration(playing with consonant sounds), assonances(repetition for the purpose of euphony and expressiveness of similar vowel sounds). Gorgias's contemporaries - the sophists Thrasymachus, Protagoras and others - continued to develop and enrich the theory of eloquence. Thanks to the works of the sophists, rhetoric received great recognition and entered the circle of sciences required for citizens.

Demosthenes

His main teacher in eloquence was Iseus; according to some reports, Demosthenes was also an ardent student of Plato and Socrates. From a young age, Demosthenes, dreaming of fame as an orator, took Pericles as a model and diligently studied Thucydides, rewriting him eight times in his own hand. The Athenians at that time were very spoiled in relation to speakers: the speaker was required not only to have internal content, but also certain facial expressions, different techniques of hands and fingers, body position during speech, and facial expressions. Meanwhile, Demosthenes was tongue-tied, had a weak voice, short breathing, a habit of twitching his shoulder, etc. With persistence and energy, he overcame all these shortcomings.

He learned to pronounce words clearly, putting shards and pebbles in his mouth, making speeches on the seashore, with the sound of the waves, which in this case replaced the noise of the crowd; climbed steep slopes, reading poets loudly; practiced facial expressions in front of a mirror, and a sword descending from the ceiling stabbed him every time he, out of habit, raised his shoulder. While studying examples of eloquence, Demosthenes did not leave the room for weeks, shaving half his head to avoid temptation. His first attempts to speak publicly were unsuccessful; but, encouraged by the actor Satyr, Demosthenes continued to work on himself.

Demosthenes' speeches are called the "mirror of character." He was not a rhetorician, did not like invented embellishments, but he influenced his listeners with the power of persuasion, logic, and strict development of thought, incidentally using arguments and examples. He often spent whole nights preparing for speeches. His language is majestic, but simple, serious and pleasant, compressed, but at the same time surprisingly smooth. He achieved success not by striving for effects, but by moral strength, nobility of thought, love for his homeland, its honor, its glory and its past. Demosthenes' accusatory speeches were caustic and bilious, for which, according to Plutarch, his contemporaries nicknamed the speaker argom ( Old Greek ἀργῆς, "snake"). The number of speeches of Demosthenes known in antiquity was 65.

Pericles

Athenian politician, son of Xanthippus, leader of the democratic party, famous orator and commander. Constant communication with the greatest thinker of that time certainly contributed to the mental development and oratorical talent of Pericles. His name is associated with the idea of ​​the heyday of Athenian democracy, Greek literature and art. Pericles raised the sea power of Athens, decorated the city, especially Acropolis , famous buildings ( Parthenon, Propylaea, etc.). Athens under Pericles reached the highest degree of economic and cultural development ( Periclean Age).

Themistocles

Athenian statesman and commander during the Greco-Persian Wars (500–449). From 493/492 he repeatedly occupied the highest positions - archon and strategist.

Even as a child, Themistocles, according to everyone, was full of violent aspirations, intelligent by nature, and he himself developed an inclination for exploits and social activities. So, during hours of rest and leisure, having finished his studies, he did not play and did not remain idle, like other children, but he was found thinking and composing some speeches to himself. The topic of these speeches was the accusation or defense of one of the children. Therefore, his teacher more than once told him: “You, boy, will not produce anything mediocre, but something very great, either good or evil!” Indeed, Themistocles studied those subjects that are studied for the development of morality or for pleasure and noble pastime, lazily and reluctantly; but he apparently loved beyond his years what was taught for the development of the mind or for practical life, relying on his natural talents. Therefore, later, when, during entertainment called noble, secular, people who considered themselves well-bred mocked him, he had to defend himself rather rudely and say that he did not know how to tune the lyre and play the psalter, but if you give him an unknown city, not famous for anything, then he will be able to make it glorious and great.

Isei

Isaeus of Chalcis is one of the ten (decade) canonical Athenian orators. In fact, he was a logographer, that is, the author of custom-written judicial speeches intended for announcement in the dicastery (court in Athens).

Iseus studied with Isocrates, and he himself was the mentor of Demosthenes. 11 speeches of Iseus have been preserved (in antiquity there were 50 of them; in addition, a treatise on rhetoric was attributed to him). Isaeus wrote in the purest Attic dialect, his style having some influence on Demosthenes. Isaeus is now read much less often than Lysias and Demosthenes, mainly because the plots of his speeches are very monotonous. All 11 speeches are devoted to cases of disputed inheritance and adoption, in which Isay probably specialized, and therefore his texts have become our main source on this issue.

Isocrates

Athenian orator. Not only Isocrates' judicial speeches were famous, but also his political pamphlets. He came from a formerly wealthy but ruined Athenian family. From a young age, he was also forced to choose the profession of a logographer; he subsequently opened an oratory school with high tuition fees, from which many politicians, speakers and writers emerged.

The school of Isocrates developed the basic principles of the composition of an oratorical work, which was supposed to contain the following parts: 1) an introduction, the purpose of which was to attract the attention and goodwill of the listeners;

2) a statement of the subject of the speech, made with possible persuasiveness;

3) refuting the opponent’s arguments with arguments in favor of one’s own; 4) a conclusion summing up everything that has been said.
As a master of eloquence, Isocrates was considered the highest authority in ancient times - the popularity of his work is evidenced by a large number of excerpts from his speeches found on papyri.

Socrates

Ancient Greek philosopher, one of the founders of dialectics as a method of finding truth by asking leading questions - the so-called. Socratic method. He presented his teachings orally; the main source is the writings of his students Xenophon and Plato. The goal of philosophy is self-knowledge as the path to comprehension of true good; virtue is knowledge or wisdom. For subsequent eras, Socrates became the embodiment of the ideal of the sage.

Socrates compared his research techniques to the “art of the midwife” (maieutics); his method of questioning, suggesting a critical attitude to dogmatic statements, was called “Socratic irony.” Socrates did not write down his thoughts, believing that this weakened his memory. And he led his students to a true judgment through dialogue, where he asked a general question, received an answer, asked the next clarifying question, and so on until the final answer.

The Word is a great ruler who has a completely invisible body, but is capable of doing the most wonderful things. With the help of the right word, you can rid a person of fear or bring about sadness. In addition, such a means of expression helps convey important information to the majority of people. This was used by various minds of the ancient world, who were called orators. In our article we will talk about the most famous ancient Greek speakers and their works that have survived to our times.

Who is a speaker?

Before we begin to familiarize ourselves with the main material, let's first understand who the speaker is and what he does. If you turn to the dictionary of the modern Russian language, you can find several definitions of this term, each of which carries a certain amount of truth. For example, speakers today are people who study the art of eloquence at a professional level.

Also, many modern writers use this term in their works, presenting to the reader characters who have a certain gift of speech. In short, a speaker is a person who delivers a specific speech. In the following sections you will find the names of ancient Greek speakers and their works, which are also used by the modern generation.

Socrates and Plato

Perhaps the two most famous orators of Ancient Greece, whose works and statements can still be found today. According to Plato, who considered himself more of a scientist than an orator, the art of eloquence is based on knowledge of the truth, and not on the correct construction of sentences and the use of phraseological units. Only if a person develops comprehensively will he be able to understand the nature of human souls and begin to convey the word to them.

As for Socrates, the scientist’s most famous work is considered to be a dialogue called “Phaedrus,” in which the famous philosopher discussed the meaning of life with a young man named Fedor. The author adhered to the theory that before you begin to convey your opinion to your interlocutor, it is necessary to study it in detail, like any subject. After this, you can find the right levers, by pressing which you will inspire trust and respect in your interlocutor.

Aristotle's rhetoric

One of the most famous ancient Greek speakers is Aristotle. His great achievements were enshrined in the Encyclopedia of Antiquity, dated 384 BC. This work consists of three books:

1. The first one talks about rhetoric as one of the most popular sciences. It also highlights three types of speeches: judicial, epideictic and deliberative and their purpose.
2. The second book talks about human morals and passions, which can be used as evidence to the interlocutor. That is, the speaker must influence human emotions by expressing feelings through speech.
3. The third book is devoted to various problems of stylistics in the construction of speech. It talks about ways to express your thoughts and construct sentences correctly.

It is also worth noting that Aristotle’s rhetoric does not only affect oratory. It can also find ways to influence and manipulate a person using speech, evidence and conclusions.

Gorgias

The list of ancient Greek orators also includes Gorgias of Leontina, who made an invaluable contribution to the development of oratory and gained recognition among many people in 485 BC. An interesting fact is that Gorgias is considered one of the first orators who taught young men from rich families to think logically and speak beautifully. The “wisdom specialist” focused primarily on the issue of style.

It was he who introduced into speech such a concept as an oxymoron - a combination of concepts that are opposite in meaning. Gorgias's contemporaries called themselves sophists and continue to build on the orator's teachings to this day. Unfortunately, no documents or records of Gorgias have survived to this day, so all that remains is to adhere to various theories and hypotheses about exactly what sciences the ancient orator studied.

Demosthenes

An ancient Greek orator and part-time teacher of eloquence, who studied with Socrates and Plato for several years. Demosthenes’ speeches are also called “mirrors of character,” since the speaker was able to almost accurately recognize what was hidden in the soul of his interlocutor and choose the right words that he would like to hear. Demosthenes himself did not consider himself a rhetorician and did not like to decorate his words with invented expressions that an ordinary person could not perceive.

People loved the speaker for his fairly simple arguments and examples, which were imbued with wisdom and nobility. Also quite an interesting fact is that Demosthenes had a rather weak voice and short breathing, so there was always complete silence during his lectures so that the students could hear the teacher. By the way, perhaps you found the question in scanwords: “Ancient Greek speaker who stuttered - 8 letters?” If so, then Demosthenes was the answer.

Pericles

The speech of the ancient Greek orator is a real performance that shows the wisdom and enlightenment of one person. However, such a spectacle becomes much more interesting if the speaker is also a political figure. Pericles was such a person. Constant communication with different people could not but affect the character and knowledge of the master of eloquence.

The flourishing of Athenian democracy is associated with the name of Pericles, so we can say without a twinge of conscience that it was this man who made an invaluable contribution to the development of the world that we know today. Thanks to Pericles and his students, Ancient Greece at one time achieved an unprecedented economic breakthrough and cultural development. It was this speaker who ordered the construction of famous buildings to begin: the Propylaea, the Parthenon, and so on.

Themistocles

Many believe that Themistocles does not belong to the ancient Greek orators, since he was a commander and statesman, but such arguments have little weight. Even in early childhood, the aspiring speaker, according to his peers, had a tendency to participate in social activities. Even during leisure hours, he enjoyed various educational activities and improved in everything.

Therefore, his teachers constantly said that nothing mediocre would ever come out of the boy, but something great. However, the young man never relied on his natural talents and improved his skills. Over time, Themistocles became a great and renowned orator who, in addition to eloquence, also explored various fields of science, such as philosophy. Most of his works were lost as Themistocles assumed leadership positions in 493 BC.

Isei

One of the ten most famous ancient Greek speakers is Iseus from Chalkis, who spent almost his entire life improving the art of eloquence. This person is also the author of several fateful speeches that were written specifically to order for legal proceedings. Today, feature films are made based on these very speeches, and actors build their fame on them.

Iseus was the mentor of Demosthenes, and he himself studied with the famous orator Isocrates. Today you can find 11 court speeches, which are extremely popular because they present everything in a very accessible language. Isei is considered much wiser than his mentor, but whether this is actually so is not for us to judge. Be that as it may, his speeches became a source of inspiration for many people who have now gained popularity.

Isocrates

A famous Athenian orator who enjoyed enormous popularity in Ancient Greece due to his famous judicial and political speeches. Isocrates came from a wealthy family, so his parents never had any problems with training young talent. In early childhood, the boy was interested in logic, philosophy, law and eloquence. All these sciences were very useful to him in life, since already at a young age Isocrates practiced his knowledge in public.

The speaker was always confident that the presentation of the speech should be as convincing as possible. To do this, he used a variety of arguments and compelling arguments in favor of his own opinion. As a master of eloquence, Isocrates is still considered one of the most authoritative figures in the history of this world. The popularity of this personality is evidenced by a huge number of excerpts from his speeches, which can be found without much difficulty on the Internet.

Socrates

The great ancient Greek philosopher, who also became the founder of dialectics. We already mentioned him in the second section of our article, but such an authoritative personality deserves special attention, and not comparison with other famous speakers. Socrates expounded his teachings mainly among his students, who were Plato and Xenophon. Most of all he loved philosophy, but oratory was given to him with amazing ease. By the age of twenty, he had acquired such wisdom that many elders could envy. For all subsequent eras, this person became the embodiment of the ideal of man.

The speaker compared his teaching methods to “the art of an old grandmother.” That is, he asked the students a series of questions, to which a critical attitude was expected on the part of the teacher. After the answers, he asked a few more additional questions, and so on until the student was in a hopeless situation. Thus, Plato learned to answer the most difficult questions, and Socrates gained his fame. It is also worth noting that this speaker did not write down his thoughts, but preferred to keep everything in his mind, so today you can find relatively little information about the activities of this sage.

Video and conclusion

We hope our article helped you understand what oratory is, as well as which ancient scientists can be considered the title of master of eloquence. If you still have any questions about this or you just want to learn more interesting information about public speaking, we strongly recommend watching a short video, which is a clipping from a TV show. In it you will find a lot of new and interesting things, and also learn how to convince other people a little better.

As you can see, in Ancient Greece there were quite a lot of interesting personalities who were real masters of oratory. The works of many of them have survived to this day, but this is still only a small part of the knowledge that philosophers and scientists could convey to us. Although if you found this article on the Internet and read it to the end, then you should be praised, since not many people are interested in the wisdom of the ancient world, although it is often where the truth and answers to many questions are found.

The largest theorist and teacher of eloquence in the 5th century BC. e. was Gorgias from the Sicilian city of Leontina. In 427 he arrived in Athens, and his skillful speeches attracted everyone's attention. Later he traveled all over Greece, speaking to audiences everywhere. At a meeting of the Greeks in Olympia, he addressed those gathered with a call for unanimity in the fight against the barbarians. The Olympic speech of Gorgias glorified his name for a long time (a statue was erected to him in Olympia, the base of which was found in the last century during archaeological excavations).

Tradition has preserved little of Gorgias's creative heritage. For example, the following advice to a speaker has been preserved: “Refute the enemy’s serious arguments with a joke, and jokes with seriousness.” Only two speeches attributed to Gorgias have been preserved in their entirety - “Praise of Helen” and “Justification of Palamedes,” written based on myths about the Trojan War. Gorgias's oratory contained many innovations: symmetrically constructed phrases, sentences with the same endings, metaphors and comparisons; the rhythmic division of speech and even rhyme brought his speech closer to poetry. Some of these techniques retained the name “Gorgian figures” for a long time. Gorgias wrote his speeches in the Attic dialect, which serves as clear evidence of the increased role of Athens in the literary life of ancient Hellas.

Gorgias was one of the first orators of a new type - not only a practitioner, but also a theorist of eloquence, who taught young men from wealthy families to speak and think logically for a fee. Such teachers were called sophists, “experts in wisdom.” Their “wisdom” was skeptical: they believed that absolute truth does not exist, that what can be proven in a sufficiently convincing manner is true. Hence their concern for the persuasiveness of the evidence and the expressiveness of the word: they made the word the object of special study. They were especially concerned with the origin of the meaning of the word (etymology), as well as synonymy. The main field of activity of the sophists was Athens, where all genres of eloquence flourished - deliberative, epidictic and judicial.

The Roman Empire, having achieved power and power throughout the Mediterranean, remade the foundations of Greek culture in its own way. And, of course, this primarily concerned philosophy and oratory. Roman orators reached a high level in their activities. Rhetoric has become not only a means of influencing society, but also a genre in literature.

Oratorical platform in ancient Rome

In ancient Roman cities, people's councils and Senate meetings gathered in the central square, where famous speakers and speakers gave speeches. A special platform was installed for them, which was called the rostra. It was decorated with the bows of captured ships captured in battles and covered with ornaments. The rostrum was of great importance for the ship's crew; it was a kind of talisman that protects the ship from storm winds, shallows and other troubles.

Oratory of Ancient Rome

In ancient Rome, skillful use of words was highly valued and was considered the main means of influence in political battles. Oratory was one of the fundamental subjects in the ancient Roman education system. It was closely intertwined with politics, jurisprudence and literary activity. Rhetoric received great development in that era, since public life in the country was quite intense. Public statements were welcomed, and citizens gladly participated in such events.

Famous orators of Ancient Rome

The greatest master of words among the ancient Romans was Marcus Cicero (106 BC - 43 BC). He achieved the highest position in society as a lawyer and a brilliant speaker, in addition, he had a good education. Cicero's teacher was the famous lawyer Scaevola.
Another famous teacher of Cicero was the Orator (143 BC - 87 BC). He was involved in politics and oratory, and served as consul in 99 BC.
Marcus Fabius Quintilian is a famous ancient Roman orator and jurist. He wrote the essay “Education of the Orator,” in which he called for educating all-round development and high morality in masters of eloquence, and not just teaching them the usual oratorical techniques and patterns.

ORATORY

The Hellenes demonstrated their abilities and civic position primarily in public life. One of the most striking manifestations of the culture of ancient Greece was oratory. His rise is associated with the living conditions in the policy, when any information was transmitted orally. The need to defend one's views and convince fellow citizens of one's rightness in debates in a national assembly, a jury trial, etc. has unusually elevated the art of mastering the spoken word.

Analyzing the art of eloquence, Aristotle divided all speeches into three types: advisory, or political judicial(accusatory and defensive) and epideictic, or solemn. The purpose of deliberative speeches is to persuade or reject, judicial speeches are to accuse or justify, epideictic speeches are to praise or blame.

The huge role of the sounding word in the life of the ancient Greeks created a need for rhetoricians- teachers of eloquence. This is how it appears rhetoric- oratory, and mastery of rhetoric becomes the highest level of ancient education.

A famous philosopher and teacher of eloquence was Gorgias(c. 480 - c. 380 BC) from the Sicilian city of Leontina. When he in 427 BC. e. arrived in Athens, he was enthusiastically received as an orator and teacher of rhetoric. Gorgias gave defensive speeches to the Athenians on mythological subjects. Two of them have reached us: “Praise of Helen” and “Justification of Palamedes”, in which Gorgias convincingly, with brilliant argumentation, proved the innocence of mythological characters. Among Gorgias's speeches there are many examples of solemn eloquence. For example, in the “Funeral Oration” the speaker glorifies the Greeks who fell in defense of the fatherland in a high-flown style.

To increase the psychological impact on listeners, Gorgias was the first to use poetic techniques in oratory: antithesis, metaphors and comparisons, rhythmic division of speech and even rhymed endings (they were called Gorgias figures). Gorgias taught not only the design of the material, but also the principles of its presentation: “Refute the enemy’s serious arguments with a joke, jokes with seriousness.” The rhetorician, who had many students and followers, outlined his theory of oratory in special works. He had a huge influence on the orators Lysias and Isocrates, and on the historian Thucydides. The philosopher Plato in the dialogue “Gorgias” examines in detail the skill of the famous orator.

The most common oratorical genre in ancient Greece was judicial speeches. In the life of the Hellenes, and especially the Athenians, who were famous for their litigiousness, the court occupied a very important place. To decide cases in court, a citizen had to not only know the laws, but also be able to attract the sympathy of the jurors to his side. The expert in rhetoric, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, taught: “When judges and accusers are the same persons, it is necessary to shed copious tears and utter thousands of complaints in order to be listened to with favor.” Not everyone was able to deliver a convincing and powerful speech. These circumstances led to the emergence logographers– experienced writers of speeches for litigants. There were cases when the same logographer composed speeches for both the plaintiff and the defendant.

The famous logographer and master of judicial eloquence Lysias (c. 435-380 BC) came from the Meteca family. He received his rhetorical education in the southern Italian city of Furies from famous sophists. Returning to Athens as a meteka, he devoted himself entirely to the work of a logographer and wrote more than 230 speeches (about 30 of them have been preserved in whole and in fragments). Lysias's oratorical style is characterized by persuasiveness in presenting the circumstances of the case. He presents events simply, concisely and expressively. Describing the character of a person, Lysias endows him with language adequate to his status. Perhaps his skill was most fully demonstrated in the speech “Against Eratosthenes,” where the speaker was able to paint a vivid picture of the atrocities of the Athenian tyrants, who, hiding behind lofty phrases, condoned robberies and murders. And in the famous speech of Lysias in defense of a disabled person, a portrait of an elderly Athenian citizen who received disability benefits from the state was drawn with great artistic skill. With his speeches, Lysias laid the foundations of European judicial eloquence.

One of the famous students of Gorgias was Isocrates (436-338 BC), who became an unsurpassed master solemn eloquence. Because of his shyness and weak voice, Isocrates was first a logographer, then founded a school of rhetoric in Athens, which became famous throughout Greece. 21 of his speeches have reached us, the most famous of which are “Panegyric”, “Philip”, “Panathenaic Speech”, as well as a word of praise to the Cypriot king Evagoras. Isocrates lived in an era of crisis of the polis system and in his speeches tried to formulate a political program for the salvation of Hellas by uniting all the Greeks for a joint campaign against the barbarians. He proposed that the wars that engulfed Greece be transferred to Asia, the wealth of Asia - to Europe, and the union of Greek city-states - to be placed under the rule of the monarch of a rich and strong state (he considered Philip II, the king of ancient Macedonia, the most suitable figure for this role).

The school of Isocrates developed principles of constructing a speaker’s speech. It should include an introduction to attract the attention of the listeners, a main part containing a convincing and vivid system of evidence, as well as a refutation of the opponent’s arguments and, finally, a conclusion that sums up everything that has been said. The speaker's style is characterized by numerous speech embellishments. Isocrates' speeches are distinguished by the rhythmic division of speech, smooth presentation, the use of sophisticated rhetorical techniques, etc. The speaker sought to make prose speech sound as elegant and harmonious as poetic speech. According to contemporaries, his speeches were aimed more at the reader than at the listener. The rhetorical art of Isocrates and his ideas of unity of the Greek world had a huge influence on his contemporaries and were further developed in the Hellenistic era.

The greatest orator of antiquity, a master political eloquence there was Demosthenes (c. 384-322 BC). He was born into the family of a wealthy Athenian citizen, but after the death of his father, the orphan’s property was taken over by his guardians by deception. Possessing a weak voice and poor diction, the young man seemed to have no chance of succeeding in rhetoric. But with hard work he managed to overcome his shortcomings and become a brilliant speaker. For contemporaries and descendants, Demosthenes appears as a patriot of Athens, an ideological leader in the struggle for Hellas to preserve its independence.

Most of Demosthenes's speeches (the speaker is credited with 61 speeches, 56 introductions to speeches and 6 letters) are devoted to current political issues, worried the Athenian citizens. Therefore, unlike the texts of Isocrates, which were intended to be recited before a small group of listeners, Demosthenes’ passionate speeches were aimed at mass audience. The speaker’s political position is most clearly revealed in the so-called “Philippics” (eight speeches: three “Olynthian”, three “Against Philip”, “On Peace”, “On Affairs in Chersonese”), united by a single theme of the struggle against the Macedonian king Philip II. In them, Demosthenes called on his fellow citizens to create a Hellenic coalition against the Macedonian danger.

There are no detailed long introductions in his speeches; the speaker quickly moves on to the main topic. To attract the audience to his side, Demosthenes speaks in short phrases, dynamic and tense, using both high style and colloquial speech. The speaker skillfully introduces imaginary dialogues with opponents, rhetorical questions, antitheses, metaphors, and “figures of silence,” inviting listeners to draw their own conclusions. An outstanding master of public eloquence of the classical era, Demosthenes became the model for many of the outstanding orators of antiquity.