The reign of Paul 1 internal politics. Characteristics of the reign of Paul I

Paul I was born on September 20, 1754. His father is Peter III, mother Catherine II. As a boy, he was separated from his parents soon after birth by his reigning great-aunt Elizabeth, who regarded him as the rightful heir to the throne and took his upbringing under her direct supervision. Pavel grew up in an atmosphere of raw passions, intrigue, and humiliating quarrels, which influenced the development of his personality. Having lost his father as a result of a coup d'état, headed by his mother Catherine II, at the age of eight he was removed from serious studies and any participation in state affairs. Paul was also expelled from his mother’s entourage; he was constantly surrounded by spies* and was treated with suspicion by the court favorites**. This explains his temper and irritability, for which his contemporaries blamed him.

Pavel's childhood was spent in the care of a lonely and loving grandmother, without maternal affection and warmth. His mother remained an unfamiliar woman to him and over time became more and more distant. When the heir was six years old, he was given a wing of the Summer Palace, where he lived with his court and his teachers. Nikita Ivanovich Panin, one of the most famous statesmen of his time, was appointed Chief Chamberlain under him.

Paul I was taught mathematics, history, geography, languages, dancing, fencing, maritime affairs, and when he grew up, theology, physics, astronomy and political sciences. He is introduced early to educational ideas and history: at the age of ten or twelve, Pavel is already reading the works of Montesquieu, Voltaire, Diderot, Helvetius, and D'Alembert. Poroshin talked with his student about the works of Montesquieu and Helvetius, forcing him to read them to enlighten the mind. He wrote the book “The State Mechanism” for the Grand Duke, in which he wanted to show the different parts by which the state moves.

Pavel studied easily, showing both sharpness of mind and good abilities; was distinguished by an extremely developed imagination, lack of perseverance and patience, and inconstancy. But, apparently, there was something in the crown prince that evoked the prophetic words of his junior teacher S. A. Poroshin: “With the best intentions, you will make people hate you.”

When Paul I was seven years old, Empress Elizabeth died. Subsequently, Pavel learned how Catherine made her victorious campaign at the head of the guard to Peterhof and how her confused husband, who had abdicated the throne, was taken to Ropsha. And Nikita Ivanovich Panin, to whom Pavel soon became accustomed, skillfully instilled in him some strange and restless thoughts about the empress. There were others who explained to the boy that after the death of Peter III, he, Paul, should have been emperor, and the wife of the suppressed sovereign could only be regent and ruler until he, Paul, came of age. Pavel remembered this very well. For thirty-four years he thought about this day and night, harboring in his heart a painful fear of that princess who took possession of the Russian throne, without at all doubting her right to autocratically rule a people of many millions.

September 20, 1772 was the day he came of age. Many were confident that Catherine would attract a legitimate heir to rule the country. But this, of course, did not happen. Catherine understood that with her death, if Paul ascended the throne, her entire state program would be destroyed in the very first days of his reign. And she decided to remove Paul from the throne. And he guessed about it.

Paul's character began to emerge from the time when he matured and began to realize his position at court: the heir to the throne, neglected by his mother, who was treated with disdain by his favorites, who was not entrusted with any state affairs.

In 1773, at the age of 19, Pavel married the daughter of a Protestant landgrave - Princess Augustine - Wilhelmina, who, after converting to Orthodoxy, received the name Natalya Alekseevna. On the eve of Pavel's wedding with his first wife. On the eve of Paul’s wedding with his first wife, Solm, the Prussian envoy in St. Petersburg, writes about the young Grand Duke Solm: “It’s easy for any girl to fall in love with him,” he said. “Although he is not tall, he is very handsome in face, of very regular build, his conversation and manners are pleasant.” , he is meek, extremely courteous, helpful and cheerful. Beneath the beautiful appearance lies a most excellent soul, the most honest and exalted, and at the same time the most pure and innocent, which knows evil only from the side that repels it, and in general is knowledgeable about evil only to the extent necessary to arm itself with the determination to avoid it and not approve of it. in others."? Unfortunately, Pavel did not live long with his first wife; she died 3 years later from childbirth.

In 1776, the Grand Duke married for the second time the seventeen-year-old Princess Sophia - Dorothea of ​​Württemberg - Mempelgard, who after the necessary conversion to the Orthodox faith received the name Maria Feodorovna, who bore him ten children: Alexander (heir to the throne), Constantine, Nicholas, Mikhail, Alexandra, Elena, Maria, Olga, Ekaterina, Anna. Pavel was a wonderful family man, as evidenced by the memoirs of his youngest son Nikolai, who says that his father “enjoyed watching us play on the carpet in his room.” Grand Duchess Anna Pavlovna, his youngest daughter, recalled “Father was so gentle and so kind to us that we loved to go to him. He said that he was removed from his older children, taken away from him as soon as they were born, but that he wanted to see the younger children near him in order to get to know them better.” And here’s what Maria Feodorovna wrote to her friend a few months after the wedding: “My dear husband is an angel. I love him to madness.”

An idealist, an internally decent person, but with an extremely difficult character and no experience or skills in government, Pavel ascended the Russian throne on November 6, 1796. While still an heir, Pavel Petrovich was thinking through a program of his future actions, but in practice he began to be guided rather by personal feelings and views, which led to an increase in the element of chance in politics, giving it an outwardly contradictory character.

Having become emperor, Paul cancels the most difficult recruitment and solemnly announces that “from now on, Russia will live in peace and tranquility, that now there is not the slightest need to think about expanding its borders, since it is already quite vast...”. Immediately upon his accession to the throne, Emperor Paul I announced that he was abandoning preparations for war with France.

“It is impossible to depict,” writes Bolotov, “what a pleasant effect this beneficent decree had throughout the entire state, and how many tears and sighs of gratitude were released from the eyes and hearts of many millions of inhabitants of Russia. The whole state and all the ends and borders of it were delighted with him and everywhere only the same wishes for all the best to the new sovereign were heard...”

On November 29, 1796, an amnesty was declared for captured Poles. The emperor ordered “to release all such people and release them to their former homes; and foreigners, if they wish, abroad. Our Senate has the right to immediately issue appropriate orders regarding the implementation of this, ordering where necessary that measures be taken for supervision from the provincial boards and other zemstvo authorities, so that these released remain calm and behave decently, without entering into any harmful relations, under the threat of the heaviest punishment"

Soon peace is concluded with Persia. In a letter to the Prussian king dated January 3, 1797, Paul wrote: “You can’t do much with the existing allies, and since the struggle they waged against France only contributed to the growth of the revolution and its resistance, the world can weaken it by strengthening peaceful anti-revolutionary elements in France itself, hitherto oppressed by the revolution.” The counter-revolutionary coup on July 27, 1794 leads to the fall of the Jacobin dictatorship in France. The revolution is on the wane. The brilliant victories of General Bonaparte over the Austrians in Italy lead to the emergence of a number of democratic republics under the auspices of France. Pavel sees in this the further spread of the “revolutionary infection” and advocates the convening of a European Congress to resolve territorial disputes and suppress revolutionary gains. He is even ready to recognize the French Republic “for the sake of calming Europe,” because otherwise “you will have to take up arms against your will.” However, neither Austria nor England supported him, and in 1798 a new coalition was created against France. Russia, in alliance with England, Austria, Turkey and the Kingdom of Naples, begins a war against France.

“To put a limit to the successes of French weapons and anarchic rules, to force France to enter its former borders and thereby restore lasting peace and political balance in Europe,” is how Pavel evaluates Russia’s participation in this coalition. Instructing General Rosenberg, appointed to command the Russian expeditionary force, Pavel wrote: “... To avert everything that in non-hostile lands can arouse hatred or reprehensible impressions about the troops (to avoid participation in food executions), to inspire that we have not come to in order to promote power-hungry intentions, but to protect general peace and security, for this purpose gentle and friendly treatment of the residents. Restoration of thrones and altars. Protect troops from the “pernicious infection of the minds”, observe church rituals and holidays.”

There are many people in the world who call for something and then tear their hair out when it happens.

As soon as he ascended the throne, Paul 1 changed the order of succession to the throne in Russia, which had been in effect without changes since the time of Peter the Great. Paul 1 changed the position that the future monarch is determined by the will of the incumbent. From now on, only representatives of the ruling dynasty in the male line in order of seniority had rights to the throne. Thus began the internal policy of Emperor Paul 1.

The next stage of Paul 1’s actions within the country was the search for associates and winning the love and respect of most of the people. To achieve these goals, Paul 1 almost completely removed from power all the officials who served Empress Catherine. New officials loyal to Emperor Paul were appointed to the vacant positions. The domestic policy of Paul 1 continued to soften the living conditions of the peasants. First of all, the emperor repealed the law that prohibited peasants from complaining about the landowners. After this, all types of corporal punishment for peasants were abolished, all arrears from peasants were canceled, the amount of which at the time Pavle 1 came to power exceeded 7 million rubles. In addition, Paul 1 reduced corvee throughout the country. If earlier corvee (free work of peasants on the landowner's fields) was 6 days a week, now it should not exceed 3 days a week. The imperial decree also prohibited the involvement of peasants in corvee work on weekends, as well as on religious holidays.

The main events of the emperor's policy

The internal policy of Paul 1 continued with the solution of the food issue in the country. The country had extremely high prices for all types of food. To solve this problem, Paul 1 issued a decree according to which everyone was obliged to trade at reduced prices for food obtained from state reserves.

The new emperor tried to instill fear and respect for his person in everyone. As a result, massive repressions began in the country. At the same time, the emperor did not look at the rank or origin of the accused. Paul 1 was not interested in violations either; sometimes nobles who simply violated their dress code were exiled and deprived of all titles and privileges. Paul 1 liked to repeat that there are practically no noble people in his country, and those with whom the emperor deigns to speak are considered noble, and exactly as long as the emperor speaks to him. The domestic policy of Paul 1 was extremely cruel for the country's elite. The secret chancellery, which dealt with such cases, met almost without interruption. In total, during the reign of Emperor Paul 1, 721 cases were processed through the Secret Chancellery, which amounted to almost 180 cases per year. For example, during the reign of Empress Catherine 2, the secret chancellery met on average 25 times a year, investigating 1 case per convocation.

Controversy in domestic politics

The problem of studying the era of Paul 1 is that this emperor brought almost any undertaking to the point of insanity, when ideas were simultaneously implemented that were radically different from each other and which led to contradictions. That is why today they say that Paul’s internal policy was very contradictory and there were a lot of dark spots in it. For example:

• Attitude towards revolutionaries. Pavel 1 tried to show his loyalty to the revolutionaries, as a result of which he returned Radishchev, Kosciuszko, Novikov and others from exile. At the same time, he evilly persecutes everyone who has anything to do with the French Revolution.
• Politics in the army. The Emperor prohibits the admission of minors into the guard. This is an absolute plus, but at the same time the same emperor is reforming the army in the Prussian manner (the Prussian army has never been distinguished for its strength and skill).
• Peasant question. One of the main initiatives of the emperor's domestic policy was the decree on three-day corvee, which significantly limited the powers of serf owners. On the other hand, the emperor issues a decree and literally showers all landowners with new lands.
• Public administration. A law on succession to the throne is adopted (it had long been outdated and needed reform), but Paul simultaneously eliminated many colleges, which led to chaos within the country.

The domestic policy of Paul 1 also affected reforms in the army. True, they were not widespread and affected, first of all, the relationship between a soldier and an officer. Paul 1 prohibited cruel punishment of soldiers by officers. For violating this prohibition, the punishments for officers were the most severe and were no different from the punishments for soldiers who allowed themselves to insult an officer.

In whose interests did Paul 1 rule?

Paul 1 pursued internal policies to strengthen his power, and also tried to ease the role of the common man. The emperor's internal policy was carried out in the interests of ordinary categories of the population. Naturally, this displeased the major nobles, who regularly plotted against their emperor. As a result, the internal policy of Paul 1 became one of the components of a future conspiracy against the emperor. A conspiracy that cost Pavel 1 his life.

Many people call both the domestic and foreign policies of this Russian emperor contradictory and inconsistent.

In addition, researchers tend to emphasize that many of his actions were aimed at changing and breaking traditions and innovations carried out during the reign of his mother, Catherine II.

Military reform

This became one of the most ambitious transformations of the new emperor. First of all, new regulations were adopted for the infantry, cavalry and sailors (November 1796), which significantly expanded the responsibilities and reduced the powers and privileges of the officers.

From now on, they were personally responsible for the life and health of the soldiers, could not use them for work on their own estates, and were obliged to provide them with 28 days of leave every year.

Soldiers received the right to complain about abuse and arbitrariness on the part of officers. The service life of soldiers was limited to 25 years; those who served their due time or could not continue to serve due to health conditions received a pension with maintenance in disabled companies or mobile garrisons. New army units were also formed:

• communications unit (courier corps),
• military engineering unit (Pioneer Regiment),
• His Majesty's own Card Depot, responsible for the safety of existing cards and the publication of new cards.

The situation of the peasantry

In general, the situation of the peasants under the new ruler improved, however, even here some of his actions seem strange: for example, during his reign, he gave away more than 600,000 state serfs, believing that they would have an easier life with the landowners. During the reign of Paul I, peasant duties changed significantly: now landowners could demand corvee work no more than three times a week, and never on holidays and Sundays.

The grain tax was completely abolished. Also, from 1797, peasants no longer needed to maintain horses for the troops and provide them with food; instead, they had to pay an additional 15 kopecks to the poll tax. Bread prices dropped significantly as they began to sell it from state reserves. Very important was the fall in the price of salt, which was too expensive at the time.

State peasants received the right to enroll in the petty bourgeois and merchant class. The emperor obliged the governors to monitor how landowners treated serfs and report to him on cases of ill-treatment. Paul I prohibited the sale of servants and peasants without land, and also obliged landowners not to separate families during the sale.

Position of the nobility

The emperor pursued a policy of consciously weakening the positions of the nobility and, in particular, the guard. Most likely, such measures were dictated by fear of another palace coup. Since 1797, corporal punishment was allowed for members of the nobility for drunkenness, robbery, official violations and murder. In the same year, Paul I introduced a tax for the nobles on the maintenance of provincial self-government bodies, a ban on collective petitions and participation in elections for those who were dismissed from public service for misconduct.

Two years later, in 1799, a poll tax of 20 rubles was introduced, and noble meetings in the provinces were abolished. The policy of weakening the influence of the nobility on government was completed by the abolition of the right of noble societies to choose assessors for the courts.

Administrative reform

This reform was a consistent step towards strengthening central power in the state. Thus, during it, some of the collegiums that were abolished by Catherine II were restored, the Department of Water Communications was created, and the State Treasury was founded.

Succession reform

The new law regulating succession to the throne was adopted and publicly announced by the emperor himself directly on the day of his coronation. Women actually lost the right to inherit, but clear rules for the institution of regency were established.

Censorship

Unpleasantly impressed by the Great French Revolution, the emperor stopped the practice of educating young people abroad. Foreign literature was also banned and was no longer allowed to be imported into Russia. The French language and even the style of dress also fell out of favor. In addition, all private printing houses in .

Results

Attempts to instill military discipline in the nobility, drill the army and regulate all aspects of the life of his subjects did not add to the emperor’s popularity, and it is not surprising that his reign ended relatively quickly with death at the hands of the conspirators. Eyewitnesses claim that the news of the death of the sovereign was greeted not with grief, but with jubilation.

Assessments of his descendants and immediate successors regarding his reign were, as a rule, sharply negative; he was often called a tyrant and tyrant. However, already in the last century, there were attempts to draw the main attention to his heightened sense of justice, which allegedly pushed him to take appropriate actions.

Paul I took decisive measures to strengthen autocratic power. On the day of his coronation, April 5, 1797, he issued the Act of Succession to the Throne. For the first time, a clear and unshakable order of succession to the throne was introduced. From now on, imperial power was passed down through the male line: from father to son, and in his absence, to the next oldest brother of the emperor. This law was in force in the Russian Empire until 1917.

Pavel tried to protect Russia from the influence of revolutionary ideas. Strict censorship was introduced, private printing houses were closed, and it was not allowed to import not only books, but even sheet music from abroad. Anything that even remotely resembled the Great French Revolution was persecuted. Special decrees prohibited certain styles of clothing, hairstyles, and dances (for example, the waltz), in which the emperor saw manifestations of free thought. The words “citizen”, “fatherland”, “nation”, “patriot” were removed from the Russian language.

Man's worst enemies would not wish him the troubles that his own thoughts can bring him.

Eastern wisdom

The less than five years of the reign of Emperor Paul 1, from 1796 to 1801, were remembered for their intense foreign policy. During this period, revolutionary France strengthened and began a campaign of conquest in Europe. It was these events that served as the main point for Paul 1 in defining Russia’s tasks in foreign policy. However, the alliance with European powers against France brought the country many disappointments, which led to a sharp change in Russia's foreign policy course. The article is devoted to a description of the main stages and directions of the foreign policy of the Russian Emperor Paul 1.

Basic principles of foreign policy at the beginning of the reign

Having begun to rule in 1796, Paul 1 declared that Russia would wage only defensive wars. This was due to the fact that in the 18th century the country spent most of its resources on regular external conflicts. It was by adhering to this line that the emperor declared neutrality regarding the French Revolution. A year before the start of his reign, Russia became part of the first anti-French coalition. In 1796, Russia left the coalition. However, further successes of France forced England, Austria and Prussia to strengthen the work of their diplomatic services in order to once again involve Russia in a new alliance against France. As a result, by the end of 1797 the parties were able to agree on the creation of a second anti-French coalition.

Main goals

Foreign policy in 1797-1800

According to joint agreements between England, Austria, the Ottoman Empire and Russia, the troops of Paul 1 were to take part in three large military campaigns:

1. Netherlands. It was necessary to send 45 thousand soldiers to this country to restore its independence. This military campaign was carried out entirely in the interests of England. The campaign itself took place in 1798, but ended in complete failure of the Anglo-Russian troops. In fact, about 7 thousand Russian soldiers died for the interests of England.
2. Italy and Switzerland. The trek through the Alps, which eventually became world famous, was led by Suvorov. As a result, Northern Italy was liberated from the French, but Rimsky-Korsakov’s army was defeated near Zurich. Despite the success in this military campaign, it was clear that Austria benefited from this campaign, but at the hands of Russia.
3. Maritime company in the Mediterranean Sea. In 1798, Paul 1 signed an agreement with the Turks that the Russian fleet could freely pass through the straits into the Mediterranean Sea. This was aimed at implementing a plan to recapture the Ionian Islands and southern Italy from the French. In 1798-1800, the sea voyage was led by Admiral F. Ushakov. The main victory was the capture of the fortress of Corfu on the Ionian Islands. In addition, the Russian fleet fought in the area of ​​Naples and Palermo in Italy.

An interesting fact is that after Paul 1 announced plans to liberate Malta from the French, the Order of Malta named the Russian emperor as its protector. In December 1798, Paul 1 was elected master of this order. The Emperor was fascinated by the stories of knightly orders, so he established the Order of St. John in Russia, and added the Maltese cross to the coat of arms of Russia. In addition, some sacred Christian relics, such as the Philermo Icon of the Mother of God, were transported to St. Petersburg.

As we can see, most of the military campaign of 1798-1800 was primarily in the interests of Russia’s allies: England, Austria and Turkey. This was the reason for the break with the second anti-French coalition in 1800.

Foreign policy in 1800-1801

After a break with previous allies, Paul 1 began a rapprochement with France. This led to serious aggravation of relations with England and other countries of the anti-French coalition. As a result, Paul 1 took a number of actions aimed primarily against England:

1. In 1800, a law was signed banning the import of English goods into Russia. These actions were aimed at an economic blockade of England.
2. In 1801, the Don Cossack corps received orders to prepare for the start of a campaign against British India. The campaign never began, because in March 1801 a coup took place in Russia and Alexander 1 came to power.

As we can see, in 1800, fundamental changes occurred in the foreign policy of Paul 1: the emperor moved from an alliance with the anti-French coalition to cooperation with Napoleonic France. However, the economic blockade of England could also undermine the interests of Russia, and this became one of the reasons for the coup d'etat of 1801.